European Kingdoms

Modern Germany
AD 1990 - Present Day
Incorporating Heads of State (1990-2025)

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Today's Germany is officially known as the 'Federal Republic of Germany', a Central European state which ranks amongst the most powerful on the entire European continent. It operates through a federal parliamentary system which, to an extent, preserves some of the internal boundaries of the former independent German kingdoms and principalities. In fact, those sixteen constituent states still retain some sovereignty of their own.

With a capital in Berlin (restored to prominence in 1994 at the expense of Bonn), Germany is neighboured by Poland and Czechia to the east, Austria to the south-east and south, Switzerland to the south, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands to the west, and Denmark to the north.

Modern Germany descends from a broad swathe of Central European territory which was known as Germania during the Roman empire period. Its current political foundation arose thanks to the Carolingian empire of the Franks. The subsequent formation of the Holy Roman empire under purely German leaders saw its borders crystallised, especially on the frequently-fluid eastern side.

Following the empire's termination in 1806, the northern German kingdom of Prussia quickly became the dominant force in German politics. It formed a pan-'German Empire' in 1871 and led its vassal states into the First World War in 1914.

Defeat in 1918 led to the unstable Weimar republic being formed. Weighed down by unrealistic reparations payments to the victorious allies, it was helpless to prevent the rise of Nazism and the triggering of the Second World War in 1939. Defeated again by 1945, Germany was occupied by the allies until the slow collapse of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s.

The dramatic fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 was the trigger for German reunification, which took place on 3 October 1990. This was not a merger of the two Germanies but a continuation of the former Federal Republic of Germany in West Germany. It retained its political and administrative formation and simply absorbed the former German Democratic Republic of the east. Since then the country has been one of Europe's strongest economic and political performers.

Please note that the History Files does not regularly monitor changes in modern heads of state or their representatives. Get in touch here if this section requires updating.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Tom Horne, from The First World War, John Keegan (Vintage Books, 2000), from A History of Poland from its Foundation, M Ross, from The History of the Baltic Countries, Zigmantas Kiaupa, Ain Mäesalu, Ago Pajur, & Gvido Straube (Eds, Estonia 2008), from The Campaigns of Napoleon, David Chandler (Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd, London, 1996), from The Last Kaiser: William the Impetuous, Giles Macdonogh (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001), from Germany - The Tides of Power, Michael Balfour (Routledge, 2004), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia.com, and Cranach Digital Archive (in German and English), and Special Collections (University of Arizona), and Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911 Edition), and Royal Musings, and The road to World War Two (Reuters), and The Saxon Royal Succession (Eurohistory), and Romanian Royal Family, and Bundesministerium der Justiz, and Angela Merkel bows out (The Guardian), and German chancellor Olaf Scholz loses confidence vote (The Guardian), and Conservatives win German election (The Guardian).)

1990 - 1994

Hohenzollern heir since West Germany period (1951).

1990 - 1994

President of the FDR since 1984. CDU.

1990

The newly reunified Germany concentrates heavily on improving the infrastructure in its five recreated eastern states within the former East Germany. Environmental pollution is cleaned up and the states see a market economy being introduced. The work takes its toll on Germany's economic success, however. By the end of the decade it is heading towards a short recession (in 2003).

The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 was a popular move which was generally people-driven and spontaneous, following the general collapse of the Soviet empire which backed East Germany's police state

1994

Son. Disqualified through two morganatic marriages.

1994

Brother. Disqualified through morganatic marriage.

1994

Brother & next in line. Born 1944, died of injuries in 1977.

1994 - Present

Son. Born 1976.

1994 - 1999

President of the FRG (1 Jul-30 Jun). CDU.

1994

After naming Berlin in 1991 as the new capital of the reunified Germany, the capital is now moved there from the West German government centre of power in Bonn. Bonn retains a degree of its status by becoming a federal city and retaining some offices in the new governmental structure. In the same year the last Russian and allied post-war occupation troops leave Berlin.

East Germany of the 1970s saw a period of gradual decline as the reality of a cash-strapped, Soviet-dominated governmental structure became apparent, while West Germans were doing very well

1999 - 2004

President of the FRG (1 Jul-30 Jun). SPD.

2004 - 2010

President of the FRG (1 Jul-31 May). CDU. Resigned.

2005

German politics engenders unexpected federal elections, leading to a temporary stalemate when no clear winner is announced. After almost a month of negotiations, Angela Merkel of the CDU becomes the country's first female chancellor, replacing the long-serving Gerhard Schröder. She will retain the post for sixteen years.

2007

On 30 December 2007, the sixtieth anniversary of his abdication, the former King Michael of Romania signs a document entitled Fundamental Rules of the Royal Family of Romania. With this act he specifies that his daughter, Princess Margarita, is the heir to the Romanian throne with the titles 'Crown Princess of Romania' and 'Custodian of the Romanian Crown'.

Sworn in no less than four times during her sixteen year stint as German chancellor, Angela Merkel became a standard bearer for a consensual way of doing politics

Michael also requests of the Romanian parliament that, should the monarchy ever be restored, the Salic Law of succession which prevents female succession be abolished. This act effectively bars Prince Frederick of the German Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen family, of which Michael is a part, from inheriting the title.

2010

Acting president of the FRG (31 May-30 Jun). SPD.

2010 - 2012

President of the FRG (30 Jun-17 Feb). CDU. Resigned.

2011

George Frederick, son of Prince Louis Ferdinand, great-grandson of Kaiser William II, heir to the Prussian throne, and the current head of the House of Hohenzollern, is married on Saturday 27 August.

His bride is Princess Sophie von Isenburg, who is just a year younger than the prince himself. The ceremony takes place in the Church of Peace in Sanssouci in Potsdam (see feature link for other German churches). The marriage, and the possibility of future issue, places in doubt Prince Christian-Sigismund's position as heir.

The marriage between Prince George Frederick of Prussia and Princess Sophie of Isenburg would, within two years, produce an heir and a 'spare' at the same time, with the birth of twins

2012

Acting president of the FRG (17 Feb-18 Mar). CSU.

2012 - 2017

President of the FRG (18 Mar-18 Mar). No party.

2017 - On

President of the FRG (19 Mar-On). SPD.

Uncle of George. Heir until 2013. Born 1946.

2013

The marriage between George Frederick and Sophie von Isenburg produces the promised heir, plus a spare in the form of his twin. Carl Friedrich Franz Alexander is the elder by a few minutes and becomes heir to the Hohenzollern titles. Louis Ferdinand Christian Albrecht is the younger, while, Prince Christian-Sigismund is relegated to third in line to the succession.

2015

In mid-October Hungary fences off its border with Croatia in an attempt to halt the flow of refugees heading into Europe from the military conflict zones in Syria and Afghanistan. The effort pushes the flow westwards so that it cuts directly through tiny Slovenia. In November it too is forced to fence off the migration path on the Croatian border.

In 2015 Hungary's government announced that its new anti-immigration border fence was ninety-nine per cent complete, having directly accused neighbouring Croatia of purposefully directing refugees towards the Hungarian border

The Balkans migration trail subsequently sees a large drop in numbers, with smugglers and other routes becoming preferred instead. Germany voluntarily takes a large number of migrants, although the decision backfires somewhat in subsequent years.

2021

The end of Angela Merkel's largely successful sixteen year period in office as German chancellor is marked on 2 December. Merkel is awarded a military tattoo in her honour, the highest tribute which can be paid to a civilian.

The event involves Beethoven, a romantic chanson, and an East German pop hit, all played with clockwork precision by the Bundeswehr military band. Olaf Scholz takes over her office a week later.

2024

Deeply unpopular and generally viewed as vacillating, Olaf Scholz deliberately loses an historic vote of confidence in the German parliament on Monday 16 December 2024, paving the way for early national elections following the collapse of his government. President Steinmeier is asked to dissolve parliament and formally call for elections.

Largely unpopular and generally seen as indecisive, when it came to potential re-election, Olaf Scholz oversaw his party's worst performance since the Second World War, with exit polls showing his Social Democrats receiving only sixteen percent of the vote

2025

The elections on Sunday 23 March 2025 deliver a CDU/CSU win in the form of Friedrich Merz. After gaining twenty-nine percent of the vote which has a high turnout, he is expected to form a coalition government. The Moscow-supported (and Trump-supported) far-right 'Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) comes second, with about twenty-one percent of the vote.

Son of George Frederick and heir. Born 2013.