European Kingdoms

Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
Roman Emperors in Nicæa / Exiles / Laskarids (AD 1204-1261)

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In AD 395, the Roman empire finally split permanently, creating formal Eastern Roman and Western Roman empires, acknowledging what had existed in practise for many years.

Nicæa (Nicaea) had been captured by Süleyman I of Rum around 1075, during the first wave of Turkic attacks following the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) defeat in 1071 which had also witnessed the capture of Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes of the Ducas dynasty. The sultan subsequently made Nicæa his capital, but it and much other peripheral territory was lost to Rum during the initial stages of the First Crusade in 1096.

With the conquest of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Latin rulers governed the city and much of the former empire, backed by Venice and France. The leader of the Fourth Crusade also set up other minor Crusader states in Greece, but other territories were lost, including the Albanian principality of Arbanon.

The reigning Eastern Romans withdrew to Nicæa in Anatolia, but rival claimants also established holdings in Trebizond, Epirus, and Thessalonica so that, at one point, there were four claimants to the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) throne, as well as the Bulgar and Serb states which also claimed dominance over it.

For members of the Jewish Diaspora who were citizens of the fractured empire, especially the long-term resident Romaniote Jews, conditions abruptly worsened. Anti-Semitic legislation was now more easy to pass in smaller states, and the Jews seemed to bear the brunt of it. John III Ducas Vatatzes in 1253 enacted legal reforms which specifically targeted Jews. The reforms came into use shortly after his death in the following year, but they were followed by his son with some enthusiasm.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol 2, André Wink (Brill, 2002), from The Turks in World History, Carter Vaughn Findley (Oxford University Press 2005), from The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade, Susan Wise Bauer (2010), from The Despotate of Epiros, Donald McGillivray Nicol (Blackwell & Mott, 1957), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and the Turkish Cultural Foundation, and Jewish Encyclopaedia, and History of the Byzantine Empire (Live Science).)

1204 - 1222

1211

The Battle of Antioch on the Meander (also known as the Battle of Alaşehir) is fought between the forces of Theodorus I Lascaris and Sultan Kaikhosru of Rum. The sultanate's defeat and the sultan's death on the battlefield confirms Nicæan dominance of Anatolia's Aegean coast.

The army of Lascaris is virtually destroyed itself, but the victory ends the Seljuq threat. Kaikhosru's successor (and son) concludes a truce with Nicæa on 14 June 1211 which solidifies the border between the two for the next half a century.

The Battle of Antioch on the Meander in 1211 ended the threat to Eastern Romans that had been posed by the sultanate of Rum, with peace being agreed afterwards and good relations being maintained for over a generation

1222 - 1254

1242

Epirus is defeated by John III and its ruler is reduced to a despot.

1246

Thessalonica falls to John III.

1252 - 1257

Golem of Arbanon submits in 1252 to Emperor John III Ducas Vatatzes. But the principality suffers a revolt against imposed Nicaean rule. That is put down but the principality is then annexed by the individual who becomes responsible for writing down much of the short history of Arbanon - Grand Logothete George Akropolites of Constantinople.

Albanian independence is ended by this act, although only briefly. Such is the chaos in the Balkans at this time, as the Eastern Roman empire gradually rebuilds itself, that it is only fifteen years later that the Albanian '(First) Kingdom' is declared.

1253

Members of the Jewish Diaspora within Nicæa are generally Romaniote Jews who have been present since the formation of the Eastern Roman empire. John Vatatzes now carries out legal reforms which specifically target his Jews subjects. The reforms come into use shortly after his death in the following year, but they are followed by his son with some enthusiasm.

1254 - 1258

Son.

1257

Grand Logothete George Akropolites of Constantinople serves Theodorus II Lascaris as a military commander in the field of battle against Epirus, but his role is short-lived as it happens. He is now captured in 1257 and is imprisoned for two years.

1258 - 1261

Aged 8 at accession. Blinded & imprisoned by Michael.

1259 - 1282

Returns to Constantinople as the Palaeologus capital.

1261

The Nicæan-Latin Wars are not concluded when Michael VIII Palæologus recaptures Constantinople, as Achaia and Athens are still occupied by Latin rulers. The city falls during a surprise attack when much of the garrison is raiding Nicæan territory.

The Latins are helped in their largely successful evacuation by the Venetian fleet, but Michael VIII is able to claim Constantinople as his seat and the capital of the Palaeologus. Unfortunately the claim to the throne of John IV is sidelined when the boy, now aged eleven, is blinded and imprisoned.