European Kingdoms

Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
Roman Emperors in Nicæa / Exiles / Laskarids (AD 1204-1261)

Rome Aquitani Tribes Canaanite States Celtic Tribes Classical Colonies Germanic Tribes Iberian Tribes Mesopotamian States Syrian States

From the start, the capital of the newly-created Eastern Roman empire was based at Constantinople, dedicated by Emperor Constantine 'the Great' in AD 330. In AD 395, the Roman empire finally suffered a permanent split, creating formal Eastern Roman and Western Roman empires within Europe and beyond, acknowledging what had existed in practise for many years.

Nicæa (Nicaea) in Anatolia had been captured by Süleyman I of Rum around 1075, during the first wave of Turkic attacks following the Eastern Roman defeat in 1071 which had also witnessed the capture of Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes of the Ducas dynasty. The sultan subsequently made Nicæa his capital, but it and much other peripheral territory was lost to Rum during the initial stages of the First Crusade in 1096.

When the crusaders stormed Constantinople's city walls in 1204 and managed to gain access, Emperor Alexius Ducas, the last of the Angeli, found his forces were reluctant to fight. The Varangian Guard steadfastly refused until it had received its back-pay. Despite having done a dedicated job in improving the city's defences and increasing its military strength, the capable usurper found himself in despair at being unable to make his men fight. He left city by night, only to be captured and murdered by the crusaders.

He was soon followed in flight by the last Greek officer who managed to keep his head: General Theodore Lascaris. Before leaving he endeavoured to launch one final attack on the crusaders even after the emperor had departed. Then he left for Nicæa where he founded a rival Laskarid dynasty of his own as the first of the 'Exiles'.

With the defeat of the Angeli by the Fourth Crusade in Constantinople, Latin rulers governed the city and part of the former empire, backed by Venice and France. The leader of the Fourth Crusade also set up other minor Crusader states in Greece (such as Achaia, Athens, and Naxos), but other territories were lost, including the Albanian principality of Arbanon.

Principal author(s): Page created: Page last updated:

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol 2, André Wink (Brill, 2002), from The Turks in World History, Carter Vaughn Findley (Oxford University Press 2005), from The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade, Susan Wise Bauer (2010), from The Despotate of Epiros, Donald McGillivray Nicol (Blackwell & Mott, 1957), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and the Turkish Cultural Foundation, and Jewish Encyclopaedia, and History of the Byzantine Empire (Live Science), and The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, Jonathan Shepard (Ed, Revised Edition, Cambridge University Press, 2008, and available via the Internet Archive), and Byzantine Empire, CWC Oman (Fisher Unwin, 1892, and available via Heritage History).)

1204 - 1222

General under Angeli. Founded dynasty after Latin conquest.

1204

When the Crusaders storm Constantinople's city walls and manage to gain access, Emperor Alexius Ducas of the Angeli finds his Eastern Roman forces are reluctant to fight. In despair at being unable to make his men fight he leaves the city by night.

When the Fourth Crusade took control of Constantinople in AD 1204, with the help of the Venetians, they inherited a reduced Eastern Roman empire (click or tap on map to view full sized)

He is soon been followed by the last Greek officer who manages to keep his head: General Theodore Lascaris. Before leaving he endeavours to launch one final attack on the crusaders even after the emperor had departed. Then he left for Nicæa where he founds a dynasty of his own while opposing the Latins.

1206

Henry of Flanders finds himself ruling Constantinople surprisingly soon after the Latin conquest of the city. One of his first military acts is to lay physical claim to the empire's Anatolian territories.

He attempts to take the strong town of Prusa but is roundly repelled by Theodorus Lascaris. The defeat places a limit on Latin territorial extensions to the east of Constantinople. Beyond a few castles on the Bithynian coast they make no conquests. Theodorus immediately has himself crowned as the primary Eastern Roman imperial claimant.

Under the leadership of Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, and Dandolo, doge of Venice, the Fourth Crusade was diverted from its original purpose, instead ending up storming the walls of Constantinople and setting up a Latin kingship there

1206 - 1207

As the brother of and military commander for Alexius I Comnenus of Trebizond, David Comnenus has successfully expanded this Pontic state to include much of Paphlagonia so that Trebizond's holdings now border those of Nicæa.

David's rapid westwards expansion now leads to direct conflict with Nicæa, which is consolidating its own power in Anatolia. Towards the end of 1206 and into early 1207, David attempts to attack the region of Prousias. Theodorus successfully defends his newly-won realm and Comnenus gains no territory.

Instead the Comneni are constrained to content themselves with the narrow bounds of their Pontic realm, where their descendants reign in obscurity for three centuries or so as emperors of Trebizond.

1211

The Battle of Antioch on the Meander (also known as the Battle of Alaşehir) is fought between the forces of Theodorus I Lascaris and Sultan Kaikhosru of Rum. The sultanate's defeat and the sultan's death on the battlefield confirms Nicæan dominance of Anatolia's Aegean coast.

The Battle of Antioch on the Meander in 1211 ended the threat to Eastern Romans that had been posed by the sultanate of Rum, with peace being agreed afterwards and good relations being maintained for over a generation

The army of Lascaris is itself virtually destroyed, but the victory ends the Seljuq threat. Kaikhosru's successor (and son) concludes a truce with Nicæa on 14 June 1211 which solidifies the border between the two for the next half a century.

1222 - 1254

Son-in-law. An able ruler. Conquered Epirus.

1235

Having already defeated Latin troops in the lower Balkans, John III now lays siege to Constantinople itself. When a Venetian fleet approaches in support of the Latin king, John is forced to abandon the siege.

1241 - 1242

John Angelus of Thessalonica finds his field army being defeated in 1241 by Emperor John III of Nicæa. His capital is locked into a siege until he surrenders in 1242. John Angelus agrees to drop his claim to the title of 'emperor' and instead returns to the title of 'despot' which had been claimed in 1204 by Michael I Ducas of Epirus. He remains a vassal to Nicæa.

An icon showing four episodes from the life of Christ which was probably painted in Thessalonica, the most important artistic centre in the crumbling Eastern Roman empire after Constantinople itself

1246

Thessalonica falls to John III, removing it from the sphere of influence of Epirus following its own victory there in 1224. In claiming this territory Nicæa probably also assumes overlordship of Athos.

1252 - 1257

Golem of Arbanon submits in 1252 to Emperor John III Ducas Vatatzes. But the principality suffers a revolt against imposed Nicaean rule. That is put down but the principality is then annexed by the individual who becomes responsible for writing down much of the short history of Arbanon - Grand Logothete George Akropolites of Constantinople.

Albanian independence is ended by this act, although only briefly. Such is the chaos in the Balkans at this time, as the Eastern Roman empire gradually rebuilds itself, that it is only fifteen years later that the Albanian '(First) Kingdom' is declared.

1253

Members of the Jewish Diaspora within Nicæa are generally Romaniote Jews who have been present since the formation of the Eastern Roman empire. John Vatatzes now carries out legal reforms which specifically target his Jews subjects. The reforms come into use shortly after his death in the following year, but they are followed with some enthusiasm by his son.

Shown here are two sides of a coin which was issued from the Magnesia mint under Theodore II Lascaris, dated to the second year of his brief reign with him shown standing, holding labarum and anexikakia and being crowned by Mary, while Christ is seated on the left

1254 - 1258

Son. Started well but succumbed to epileptic fits.

1257

Grand Logothete George Akropolites of Constantinople has been serving Theodorus II Lascaris as a military commander in the field of battle against Epirus, but his role is short-lived as it happens. He is now captured and is imprisoned for two years.

1258 - 1260

Aged 8 at accession. Blinded & imprisoned by Michael.

1259 - 1260

Unprincipled general and regent. Usurped throne.

1260 - 1261

Sole emperor. Captured Constantinople as Palaeologus.

1260

General Michael VIII Palæologus clears out all of the young John Lascaris' relatives and adherents, replacing them with his own followers while the clergy is conciliated by large gifts and hypocritical piety.

The able but ruthless Michael VIII Palæologus seized the throne of Nicæa, blinded and imprisoned its young ruler, and then made the most of the tactical blunders of his Latin opponents to launch a successful liberation of occupied Constantinople to restored the Eastern Roman empire to its rightful capital

Michael's adherents soon begin proclaiming the dangers of a minority, and the necessity for a strong ruling hand. After much persuasion and a good deal of presumably feigned reluctance the regent is induced to allow himself to be crowned.

John Lascaris is entirely sidelined, his eyes are put out, and he is exiled to a dungeon in which he remains until his death thirty years later. However, the outraged leaders of the various Latin and Eastern Roman rival territories are no match for Michael's forces when they meet in battle. His victory is complete.

1261

The Nicæan-Latin Wars are not concluded when Michael VIII Palæologus recaptures Constantinople, as Achaia and Athens are still occupied by Latin rulers. Constantinople falls during a surprise attack when much of the garrison is raiding Nicæan territory.

The Latins are helped in their largely successful evacuation by the Venetian fleet, but Michael VIII is able to claim Constantinople as his seat and the capital of the reduced Eastern Roman empire of the Palaeologus.

Eastern Roman Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus with Eudocia, following their entry into Constantinople, were absorbed in the work of restoring the empire, albeit in recovering the revenue of the court and enriching the emperor's supporters, while foreign alliances were not particularly encouraging