European Kingdoms

Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
Dynasty of the Palæologus / Empire Restored (AD 1261-1453)

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From the start, the capital of the newly-created Eastern Roman empire was based at Constantinople, dedicated by Emperor Constantine 'the Great' in AD 330. In AD 395, the Roman empire finally suffered a permanent split, creating formal Eastern Roman and Western Roman empires within Europe and beyond, acknowledging what had existed in practise for many years.

With the defeat of the 'Dynasty of the Angeli' by the Fourth Crusade in Constantinople in 1204, Latin rulers governed the city and much of the former empire, backed by Venice and France. The leader of the Fourth Crusade also set up other minor Crusader states in Greece, but other territories were lost, including the Albanian principality of Arbanon.

The reigning Eastern Romans withdrew to Nicæa in Anatolia, but rival claimants also established holdings in Trebizond, Epirus, and Thessalonica so that, at one point, there were four claimants to the Eastern Roman throne, as well as the Bulgar and Serb states which also claimed dominance over it.

It was the line of emperors at Nicæa which ultimately produced a successful claimant to the throne in Constantinople. Michael VIII was able to found the 'Dynasty of the Palæologus' and, in 1261, returned to Constantinople.

By the 1300s the much-reduced empire consisted of a small area around the tip of southern Greece and a chunk of territory around Constantinople itself. It was weakened, and its emperors continually failed to rebuild the treasury. A large degree of this failure was due to an inability to rebuild the navy to a level which would enable it to regain trade which had been lost to Venice. The final blow would come with the Ottoman sack of Constantinople in 1453.

Michael Palaeologus was not an able general, more of a clever intriguer. After usurping the rightful Nicæan ruler he perpetually feared being usurped. In his fear he disbanded nearly all native Greek units and refrained as far as possible from employing Greek generals. His acts may even have provided the first potential inroads for eventual Ottoman conquest.

Principal author(s): Page created: Page last updated:

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from The Bulgarians: from pagan times to the Ottoman conquest, David Marshall Lang (Westview Press, 1976), from The Turks in World History, Carter Vaughn Findley (Oxford University Press 2005), from The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade, Susan Wise Bauer (2010), from The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, John V A Fine (University of Michigan Press, 1994), from Byzantium: Church Society, and Civilization Seen through Contemporary Eyes (Source materials, University of Chicago Press, 1984), and from External Links: Bulgaria (World Statesmen), and Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and the Turkish Cultural Foundation, and Jewish Encyclopaedia, and History of the Byzantine Empire (Live Science), and The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, Jonathan Shepard (Ed, Revised Edition, Cambridge University Press, 2008, and available via the Internet Archive), and Byzantine Empire, CWC Oman (Fisher Unwin, 1892, and available via Heritage History), and The End of Byzantium, Jonathan Harris (Yale University Press, 2010, available via JSTOR).)

1261

Emperor Michael VIII, based at Nicæa, returns to Constantinople. The claim to the throne of John IV is sidelined when the boy, now aged eleven, is blinded and imprisoned. Manuel I of Trebizond maintains his own claim to be emperor even so, as do his immediate successors.

The able but ruthless Michael VIII Palæologus seized the throne of Nicæa, blinded and imprisoned its young ruler, and then made the most of the tactical blunders of his Latin opponents to launch a successful liberation of occupied Constantinople to restored the Eastern Roman empire to its rightful capital

1261 - 1282

Former general and regent. Restored exile in Nicæa.

1272

The Albanian '(First) Kingdom' is established, but its founding coincides with a turbulent period in Balkans history as the Eastern Roman empire is gradually collapsing. Turkic groups and various European interests are fighting over the scraps, especially the Bulgarians, Croatians, and Serbians.

1274

As soon as Pope Gregory X takes office, having spent time on Crusade with King Edward I of England, he convenes the Second Council of Lyon. The council is called so that the pope can attempt to act upon a pledge made by Emperor Michael VIII to reunite the eastern and western churches.

Despite the apparent intention of both sides to agree to reunification, the Eastern Roman people are staunchly against it, and any agreement is soon abolished by Michael's son when he succeeds to the throne. Pope Gregory X himself dies following the council, as he is travelling back from Lyon to Rome, removing another supporter from the cause.

Eastern Roman Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus with Eudocia, following their entry into Constantinople, were absorbed in the work of restoring the empire, albeit in recovering the revenue of the court and enriching the emperor's supporters, while foreign alliances were not particularly encouraging

1276

Michael VIII invades Euboea and Thessaly. John de la Roche, duke of Athens, joins Gilbert of Verona to march to the relief of Negroponte, which is under attack by Michael's Admiral Licario. During a battle at Vatonda John is thrown from his horse and is captured along with Gilbert and many other knights.

1278

The Eastern Roman presence in Butrint has alarmed Nicephoros I of Epirus, prompting him to open communications with Charles of Anjou in Albania and his vassal, William II of Villehardouin, prince of Achaea. Nicephoros I promises homage to Charles in return for land in Achaea.

To this end, Nicephoros' troops capture the city of Butrint in 1278 from Epirus and, in March 1279, he declares himself a vassal of Charles of Anjou. Charles is handed the castles of Sopot and Butrint.

1279

Ivalio's successful peasant rebellion sees him marrying Maria Palaiologina Kantakouzene, widow of the late Tsar Constantine Asen, in order to cement his control in the face of hostile forces on all sides of Bulgaria's borders. Michael VIII Palæologus supports Ivan III in an attempt to claim the throne, even giving him troops to do so.

In the late 1100s Ivan Asen leds his troops in revolt against Eastern Roman occupation of Bulgaria in this modern artistic recreation

1280

Ivalio travels to the Mongol capital to gain support there, but after Ivan flees to Constantinople he arouses Michael's wrath. Then he proceeds to ensure that the Mongols favour his seemingly better claim of legitimacy. Ivalio is killed while the Bulgarians exile Maria to Constantinople. Ivan is not restored as tsar of the Bulgars.

With Pope Nicholas III dead in August 1280, Charles of Anjou is free to make his own moves. Great stores of weapons are sent to Spinarizza, recently captured for Albania from the Eastern Romans and, in December 1280, the land around Roman-occupied Berat is seized by his forces as they besiege the city.

1281

Charles of Anjou caps his recent military and political successes by appointing a French pope in the form of Pope Martin IV. This dangerous period of French domination in papal affairs will soon lead to the 'Great Schism'.

This beautifully-penned and illustrated medieval version of the Liber Pontificalis covers the lives of the popes from St Peter to the fifteenth century

Emperor Michael VIII is excommunicated (largely irrelevant as he follows the Orthodox church) and is in difficulties on the battlefield. He sends a large skirmishing force to Berat which manages to capture Charles' commander - Hugh de Scully - causing the Angevin forces to be routed and largely dispersed. Albanian nobles largely side with Michael to secure a more stable kingdom of Albania.

1282

In the year in which John II of Trebizond officially abandons his claim to the throne in Constantinople in order to marry Michael's daughter, all of the scheming with Venice by Charles of Anjou to build up a retaliatory force which will capture Constantinople from the Eastern Roman comes to nothing.

His fleet is docked at Sicily, part of his holdings within the Angevin kingdom of Naples, when the rebellion of the Sicilian Vespers massacres Angevins on the island and destroys the fleet.

A silver asper which was issued during the short reign of Eastern Roman Empress Theodora of Trebizond, wearing a crown which is shown differently from those of equivalent male rulers on their coins

1282 - 1328

Son. Quarrelled with the patriarchs and oversaw decline.

1288 - 1294

Charles II of Albania and Naples has been a prisoner of Aragon (until 1289). Having succeeded his father to various thrones, his commanders are unable to prevent the fall of Durazzo (Durrës) in 1288 to the Eastern Romans.

Corfu and Butrint are lost, perhaps by 1292, while the fortress at Kaninë falls, probably in 1294. With most of the kingdom of Albania lost, Charles hands the remainder to his son, Philip, prince of Taranto.

1292

Following another damaging attack by Nogai Khan and his Nogai Horde division of the Golden Horde, Tsar George I of Bulgaria is apparently removed from the throne. He accepts exile, travelling to Adrianople, while his place is taken by Smilech. After a long wait, George is finally accepted into the Eastern Roman empire by Andronicus II and spends much of the last decade of his life in obscurity in Anatolia.

The obverse of this coin was issued during the twelve year reign of George Terter (1280-1292), seemingly imitating a Venetian grosso

1293 - 1320

Son and co-emperor. A good general. Died aged 43.

1303 - 1307

The renegade Templar, Roger de Flor, is a commander of mercenaries who have recently served Frederic of Aragon in war. Andronicus II offers him service with as many followers as he can muster. Roger accepts, bringing six thousand hard-fighting men who are organised into a 'Grand Company', with Roger at their head as grand duke'.

They clear out Turks along the Bithynian coast who have been threatening Constantinople's remaining Anatolian territories, but a good deal of plundering and arrogance earns them continuing hostility wherever they go.

Roger moves south in 1304, driving Turks out of ancient Lydia and Caria. He garrisons every fortress with his own men, raising and stealing local taxes with the likelihood that he intends to found his own princely domain. Realising the mistake he has made, Andronicus has to arrange for his assassination.

1306 - 1310

It is during the reign of Andronicus II that the 'Knights of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem' capture the island of Rhodes. The island will become their heavily-fortified main base after territorial losses in the Holy Land.

The rock-cut Lycian tombs, near Dalyan in Anatolia, were created around 400 BC as part of the still-mighty remnants of the ancient city of Kaunos, founded in the tenth century BC as a port

1308

With the murder of Masud II, the sultanate of Rum disappears. While Constantinople is still clearing up the effects of the Roger de Flor mercenary disaster, various small Turkic principalities emerge to control the region, still under Il-Khan vassalage. One of these is the small Ottoman state which soon begins to make inroads to the west.

These gradually force various sections of it to splinter and create rival states (although some had also been created by the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204), such as Achaia, Athens, Epirus, Morea, and Trebizond.

1318

Having only succeeded his father as count of Cephalonia in 1317, Nicholas Orsini is quick to murder his uncle, Thomas Komnenos Doukas, and seize control of Epirus. His reach only really covers the south, with a large area of the north happily accepting an invasion by and inclusion into the Palaeologus empire at Constantinople.

1320 - 1328

In a period of anarchy Prusa [Bursa] is lost to the Ottomans in 1326 as Emir Osman starts the process of pressing home an advantage which has been handed to him by Constantinople itself.

An icon showing four episodes from the life of Christ probably painted in Thessalonica, which was the most important artistic centre in the crumbling empire after Constantinople

1324

John of Gravina, the Angevin overlord of John Orsini of Cephalonia and Epirus, stops at Cephalonia on his way to fight the Eastern Romans in the Peloponnese. John Orsini is deposed as count of Cephalonia and the territory is annexed.

John has to agree peace with and suzerainty under Andronicus II Palæologus so that he can be allowed to establish his control over all of Epirus. Marrying into the imperial family he is confirmed as despotes by the emperor.

1325

By now the various Turkic rulers have reduced Constantinople's dominions in Anatolia to a narrow strip which stretches from the Dardanelles to the northern exit of the Bosphorus, bounded by the Bithynian hills to the south.

Five Turkic leaders have carved out principalities for themselves in the conquered districts, with Menteshe in the south, Aidin and Saroukhan in ancient Lydia, Karasi in ancient Mysia, and Osman in the Bithynian borderlands, creator of the Ottoman state.

Emperor Michael IX Palæologus ruled alongside his father as a largely capable late-Roman emperor, but he died at the young age of forty-three to leave his son, Andronicus III, as an heir which Andronicus II would rather not have

Andronicus II, though, busies himself with a feeble civil war against his now-unwanted heir, his own grandson. The younger Andronicus defends his rights and in 1328 the elder Andronicus recognises him as his heir, and makes him his colleague on the throne. Andronicus III straight away makes him retire from conducting affairs and effectively replaces him on the throne.

1328 - 1341

Son of Michael. Took the throne. Died aged 44 (malaria?).

1329

Emir Orxan of Bithynia completes his father's work in founding an Ottoman empire by conquering the remainder of Roman Anatolia from the energetic but largely helpless Andronicus III.

The Battle of Pelekanon in 1329 sees Andronicus wounded early in the day. Deprived of his leadership the army goes to pieces and is severely defeated. Iznik (Nicaea) falls in 1331, and Izmid (Nicomedia) in 1337.

c.1330s

The shadowy principality of Gothia is first mentioned around this time, with the earliest date being offered by the later historian, Theodore Spandounes, falling around the 1330s or 1340s when he notes a prince of Gothia during the reign of Andronicus III between 1328-1341. Its known ties are with Trebizond.

Emperor Andronicus III was the son of Michael IX, but his garndfather had to be forced to accept him as co-emperor, at which point the grandfather immediately was removed from power

1332 - 1335

John Orsini of Epirus invades and annexes the now-anarchic Thessaly. His success provokes Emperor Andronicus III to assert control over at least the eastern portion of the region. John's death in 1335 is sudden, possibly due to him having been poisoned by his wife.

1341 - 1347

Son. Acceded aged 8. Deposed by regent.

1341

Regent. Deposed but took control of throne in 1347.

1341 - 1347

Regent. Patriarch of the Orthodox church. Deposed.

1341 - 1347

Despite being local to John V, John Cantacuzenes is removed from his post in 1341 by Patriarch John XIV and Alexius Apocaucus, head of the navy. John has been building an army to attack Latin-held territories, and that army refuses an order to disband. Instead it proclaims John the new emperor, and a civil war leads to him being enthroned in 1347.

1347 - 1354

Former regent. Proclaimed in 1341. Deposed by John V.

1348

It is John VI who reorganises the captured eastern half of Morea (the Peloponnese) into a despotate which primarily will be governed by sons of the emperor. The move would appear to be a response to the loss of control over Epirus to Stephen Urosh IV Dušan of Serbia.

Stephen Urosh IV Dušan, creator of the Serbian empire, was pictured in this mid-fourteenth century fresco in a typical Eastern Roman pose and style

1348 - 1349

The Byzantine-Genoese War of 1348-1349 is a fight for control over custom duties through the Bosphorus. The Eastern Romans attempt to break their dependence on the Genoese of Galata when it comes to food and maritime commerce, after having rebuilt something of their naval power. Their newly-built navy is captured by the Genoese and Constantinople is forced to agree peace terms.

1351

With the Eastern Roman civil war having been concluded, Emperor John Cantacuzenes has realised the threat posed by the Ottoman Turks. His attempts to form a united front alongside Serbia and Bulgaria are rebuffed, however. This is despite Bulgaria's Tsar Ivan Alexander already having lost a son and brother to Ottoman raids.

1353 - 1354

Son and co-emperor, based outside Constantinople.

1354 - 1376

Deposed John VI. Ottoman vassal (1371). Deposed.

1354 - 1357

Had to step down as co-emperor. Later despot of Morea.

1359

Nicephoras of Epirus is killed while putting down a revolt by Albanian tribes. Eastern Roman control there is permanently ended, with the territory initially being drawn back into the Serbian empire before it becomes more chaotic.

Two sides of a denier coin which was issued during the reign of John I Orsini, despot of Epirus for twelve years and count of Cephalonia

1361 - 1387

Murad continues the Ottoman process of conquering Eastern Roman territory. Edirne (Adrianople) is taken in 1361. Konya (Iconium) is taken in 1387. Thessalonica is taken in 1387. Emperor John V Palæologus is forced to recognise Murad as his overlord in 1371, a humiliating reversal of fortune.

1376 - 1379

Son of John V. Deposed his father. Died 1385.

1379 - 1390

Restored again. Deposed by John VII.

1390

Grandson. Son of Andronicus. Seized and lost throne.

1390 - 1391

Restored yet again thanks to Manuel II. Died.

1391 - 1425

Son. Tributary to Ottomans (1424).

1391 - 1408

Made co-emperor to keep a fragile peace.

1395

Patriarch Anthony of Constantinople feels the need to explain why the Eastern Roman emperor remains: 'the holy emperor has a great place in the church, for he is not like other rulers or governors of other regions. This is so because from the beginning the emperors established and confirmed the [true] faith in all the inhabited world...'.

1402

Timur defeats, captures, and imprisons Bayezid at the Battle of Ankara, making Ottoman Anatolia another province of Timurid Persia. The defeat grants the beleaguered Eastern Roman empire a degree of relief.

With Persia thoroughly focussed on resisting the ever-expanding conquests of Timur in the late 1300s, the Ottomans were largely free to focus their attentions on defeating the states of the Balkans and Greece, but Timur's completion of his task by 1401 completely changed that situation (click or tap on map to view full sized)

1403 - 1407

Son of John VII. Co-emperor in Thessalonica with full titles.

1404

Centurione Asanes Zaccaria is the scion of a powerful Genoese merchant family which has been established in the Morea (Peloponnese) since the marriage of the lord of Chios Martino Zaccaria to the baroness Jacqueline de la Roche.

Now Centurione effectively buys off his Aunt Maria's debt against her overlord, Ladislas of Naples, by purchasing the rights to the title of prince of Achaia from Ladislas of Naples. Maria's young sons lose their claim to the principality but the family's debts are erased.

1417 - 1418

The Eastern Roman army of Constantinople under Theodore II Palaeologus, despot of Morea, and Emperor John VIII now invades Achaia. They take Messenia and Elis and force Centurione to take refuge in Glarentza. From there he flees by sea in spring 1418. Only Venetian mediation from their occupation in Navarino makes it possible for the prince to be able to secure a truce.

This illustration of Constantinople in 1422 shows all the major buildings and the important defensive walls whilst leaving out the majority of dwellings in this city which increasingly was becoming a toehold in an Ottoman-dominated world

1425 - 1448

Son. Held power from 1421. Died naturally.

1432

The death of Centurione Zaccaria means that his principality of Achaia is ceded to his son-in-law, Theodore II, despot of Morea, essentially returning it to the Eastern Roman empire.

1443

Having been disputing with Constantine XI the best way forward in regard to the succession in Constantinople, Theodore II agrees to step down in Morea in return for Constantine's appanage of Selymbria (now Silivri near Istanbul).

1449 - 1453

Brother. Despot of Morea. Last emperor. Killed.

1453

Despite Constantine's defence with a fraction of the number of troops of his enemy, Constantinople, capital and heart of the fading Eastern Roman empire, is captured by Mehmed II of the Ottoman empire, and Greece becomes an Ottoman province. Emperor Constantine reportedly makes a final stand after much of the city has fallen but he dies in the attempt, one day later.

The fall of Constantinople not only ended the last vestiges of the Roman empire, now dating back almost two millennia in its many forms, but it also opened up south-eastern Europe to the Ottoman Turks

The loss is viewed as a disaster for the Christian world, despite Rome's frequent differences with the Orthodox church in Constantinople over the centuries, and with its emperors. Thomas and Demetrios now govern Morea at the whim of the Ottoman emperor, who permits them to remain in post as his vassals.

The loss also completely realigns the balance of power amongst the Turkic tribes and kingdoms to the east and north. Hajji Giray of the Crimean khanate moves quickly to establish a military alliance with the Ottoman sultan.

The subsequent fall in 1461 of the rival empire of Trebizond to Sultan Mehmet marks the final end of the Roman empire. Only the allied principality of Theodoro in Crimea outlives it, and then only by another fourteen years.

Much of the former empire is not immediately subsumed within the Ottoman empire. Independent or semi-independent small territories will have to be conquered before that can be claimed.

The Ottomans directly challenged the most powerful of Europe's Mediterranean empires in the form of the Venetian republic, leading to a series of vicious wars over the course of three centuries which are known as the Ottoman-Venetian Wars

Initially much of northern Greece is known as Rumelia by the Ottomans, meaning 'land of the Romans'. Only in 1821-1829 will a war of independence be fought which will establish a kingdom of Greece.