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Middle East Kingdoms
Ancient Anatolia
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Arzawa
(Luwia)
This was a poorly-recorded state with uncertain borders. When its existence
was first discovered by modern scholars its location was placed (in 1926)
somewhere around the later region of
Cilicia on the
southern Anatolian coast. As more was discovered about Bronze Age Anatolian
history so Arzawa's location moved further west until it settled (by 1959)
in the south-western corner of Anatolia. There were some attempts up until
the 1980s to move it back towards the east but these were unsuccessful and
Arzawa's location in the south-west is now largely accepted.
Arzawa
appears to have been a large region which was composed of several
principalities. It emerged during the dark age of the sixteenth century
BC from West Luwian-speaking
Indo-European origins. The Luwian language group which included Arzawa's
inhabitants seems to have been the first to begin a migration away from the
original Indo-European homeland, to the north of the Black Sea and Caspian
Sea, so its speakers were well settled by the time they entered the
historical record. The earliest Hittite records refer both to Arzawa and
neighbouring Kizzuwatna
as Luwia, so it is possible that they emerged from a single territorial
association (see feature link, right, for an examination of Luwian
origins).
 The
name was initially pronounced Ar-tzau-wa, and perhaps later as
Ar-tzau-va (the original 'w' having been pronounced as a 'v'
anyway). An 'Arzawiya' appears in the Proclamation of Telipinus,
although this is only extant in later copies. The capital may have been
at Zippasla (just east of Magnesia), or more likely at Apasas (possibly
Ephesos on the western coast). The Arzawan state had the
Hittites as its immediate
neighbour to the east, and the barbarian
Kaskans and Indo-European
Pala to the north.
Mycenaean
colonies soon began to appear on the western coastline (including, perhaps,
Ahhiyawa), and in the
mid to late fourteenth century BC the minor Luwian state (or vassal
region) of Lukka lay to
the immediate south. The north-western region of
Wilusa was apparently Arzawan
(at least in later years), but may have been independent of the Arzawan
state itself as it traditionally maintained friendly relations with the
Hittites (unlike Arzawa itself in several periods). Initially, during the
fifteenth century BC at least, the rulers of Arzawa were counted amongst
the 'great kings' of the day. However, letters from Arzawa were written
in the Hittite language instead of the otherwise universally-used
Babylonian
cuneiform, revealing the fact that the state court was not fully integrated
into the existing 'international system' and had a secondary status to
its more powerful neighbour, the Hittite empire. Eventual conquest by the
Hittites removed it from the international picture, and no major Arzawan
sites have so far been found by archaeologists.
Like
other Luwians, the Arzawans chiefly worshipped the storm god (Teshub
in Hurrian - later
on the Greek Zeus took on the storm god's role). They called him 'Tarhun'
but this was rendered as 'Tarhunta' in theophoric names. Both the name
Arzawa with its 'art-' pronunciation and the fact that Tarhun was worshipped
mark out the Luwians as followers of the Arte/Rte cult which survived in
Zoroastrianism as the practical philosophy of Asha. This following was
especially strong in Indo-Iranians/Indo-Aryans, but also to a degree in
early Germanics. The fact that it survived in the South Indo-Europeans who
entered Anatolia marks it out as a very old practice, one which predated the
first migrations out of the original Indo-European homeland no later than
3500 BC (see feature link, right, for a much deeper examination of this
following and how it may even have provided Asia with its name).
Another god was Uhha, as seen in the names Uhha-Muwa ('Uhha's Might')
and Uhha-Ziti ('Uhha's Man'). When the Arzawans agreed treaties with the
Hittites, they also called the river and mountain gods to witness. Another
element that appears in personal names is 'Kurunta', often under the
Sumerograms 'KAL' and 'LAMMA'. 'Kurunta' alone became a personal name
for a later prince of the kingdom of
Tarhuntassa, which
was founded by Luwians, so it seems likely that Kurunta was a local hero
as much as a god (like Heracles to the Greeks). Tarhun stands out as
being another contraction of 'tu arun', meaning 'your protector'. Other
pronunciations of this asura god are Varuna, Ouranos, Taranis and, of
course, the
Germanic
contracted form of Thor. This presence of an asura in an Anatolian branch
of Indo-Europeans is intriguing. Either the cult was borrowed, or the god
is so old that it dates back to a time at which all branches of IEs were
in contact with one another - ie. somewhere around a date of 4000-4500 BC
at the latest.
(Information by Peter Kessler and David Ross, with additional information
by Edward Dawson, from The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How
Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World,
David W Anthony, from The Arzawa Letters in Recent Perspective,
J David Hawkins (British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 14
(73-83, 2009)), from Hittite Diplomatic Texts, Gary Beckman (Second
Ed, Scholars Press, Atlanta, 1999), from The Kingdom of the Hittites,
Trevor Bryce (1998), from The Hittites, O R Gurney (1991), from
Annals of Mursili (Years 1 to 8), Ian Russell Lowell, from The
Hittites, J G Macqueen (1996), from Hittite Prayers, Itamar
Singer (Scholars Press, Atlanta, 2002), and from External Links:
Indo-European Chronology - Countries and Peoples, and
Indo-European Etymological Dictionary, J Pokorny, and Anatolian
Conference abstracts,
Emory University.) |
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c.2300 BC |
Some
time after this point the Luwians settle in Anatolia, just to the south of
the (probably indigenous)
Hatti. The Luwians are
Indo-Europeans
of the southern group - generally agreed to have been the first group to
migrate out of the original Indo-European homeland to the north of the
Black Sea and Caspian Sea. The route they have taken in their migration
is open to interpretation (and guesswork!), but a route through the
Caucuses seems most likely, followed by a more easterly route around
the eastern shores of the Caspian Sea.
Once in the region of north-eastern Anatolia they will have settled
into a semi-nomadic existence for a couple of millennia, before migrating
westwards during an intense dry spell into Anatolia itself and settling
permanently from about 2300 BC onwards. Once there, the Luwians form
two major regional states, Arzawa and
Kizzuwatna (possibly
a single state or region initially, which only later divides into two
states). Western Luwians also quickly expand into the western Anatolian
coastal regions, infiltrating and dominating native Anatolian populations in
regions such as Dardania.
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This map attempts to illustrate in basic terms the separate
paths taken by the Luwians, Hittites, and Pala during their
westwards migration and their progress from proto-Anatolians
to kingdom-builders (click or tap on map to view full sized)
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It seems
more than coincidental that 'barbarians from the north' are causing problems
in cities within Syria such as
Ebla at the same time as the
Gutians
are first mentioned. These are possible
Indo-European
tribes who inhabit the Zagros Mountains. In the same period, the Luwians are
settling across southern Anatolia, making it likely that one of these groups
is responsible for probing expeditions farther south. |
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c.1640 BC |
The
fairly new
Hittite state to the east invades Arzawa, which itself is apparently
already in existence by this time. However, records of this attack survive
only in much later copies (a late fourteenth century BC treaty of Muwatallis
II to Alexandros of Wilusa
refers to it), so the use of Arzawa may be an error or the reference may
be inaccurate. However, the eastern Luwian state of
Kizzuwatna does exist by
this time. |
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c.1450 BC |
Arzawa (or Assuwa) certainly has been established by this period. It consists
of the south-western corner of Anatolia, plus a wide strip of the
Mediterranean coastline up to the border of
Kizzuwatna (roughly
in the region of Mersin in modern
Turkey), some of
which later emerges as
Tarhuntassa. The
Lukka exist to the immediate
south, on the Mediterranean coast, while
Ahhiyawa begins to be
mentioned as occupying the Aegean coast. Some evidence of kingship also
emerges, albeit only because the king of this period comes into conflict
with a
Hittite
ally (see map, below, for specific locations). |
fl c.1430s BC |
Kupanta-Kurunta |
Eventually
replaced by Madduwattas (after dying perhaps?). |
c.1430 BC |
Arzawa concludes a treaty with the
Hittite
king, Tudhaliya II (I). However, according to an internal Hittite memo,
the 'Indictment of Madduwattas', by Tudhaliya's heir, Arnuwanda I, one
Madduwattas appears to be in regular conflict with Kupanta-Kurunta from
his Hittite-supported mountain kingdom of Zippasla.
Madduwattas is regularly defeated by the Arzawan king, so a Hittite army
is moved into Zippasla to provide a permanent garrison. With the kingdom
at last secure against Kupanta-Kurunta, Madduwattas apparently now decides
that he is never again going to suffer such indignities as his many
defeats. When Dalawa (Tlawa of the
Lukka, classical Tlos) and
Hinduwa rebel (against him or Kupanta-Kurunta?), Madduwattas suggests to
the Hittite army commander, Kisnapili, that he takes Hinduwa while
Madduwattas takes Dalawa. But while Kisnapili is on his way to Hinduwa,
Madduwattas allies himself to Dalawa and, with its help, he ambushes and
kills Kisnapili. |
fl c.1420s BC |
Madduwattas
of Zippasla |
King in Zippasla,
then
Alashiya, and finally all of Arzawa. |
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Subsequently Madduwattas marries the daughter of Kupanta-Kurunta and then
wins the Arzawan throne itself (the circumstances are unclear). Then he
moves his capital into Arzawa proper and enlarges this state in its western
Anatolian holdings. When Tudhaliya orders Madduwattas to put down a
revolt in Happalla, he does so, but then forces Happalla to switch its
loyalty to him. Then he bullies Pitassa into his kingdom, which brings
Arzawa's borders even closer to the
Hittite
heartland. Under Tudhaliya's hapless successor, Arnuwandas I, Madduwattas
even allies himself with his old foe, Attarsiyya of
Ahhiyawa,
and invades
Alashiya (on Cyprus). Madduwattas now holds the whole of western
Anatolia.
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The state of Arzawa existed from at least 1650 BC. By around
1450 BC it controlled the solid green section of the map, which
included the state of Tarhuntassa, but probably not the 'Lower
Land' (click or tap on map to view full sized)
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However, Attarsiyya soon takes Alashiya for himself and Madduwattas is kicked
out (his military skills are demonstrably pitiful!). He still rules Arzawa,
and is able to pass on a strong kingdom to his successor. Tarhundaradus is the
next named king, but the gap between his period and that of Madduwattas is too
great. There must be at least one missing king in between them. As for
Zippasla, the name fades from history, suggesting that it is nothing more than
Madduwattas' personal stronghold. |
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? |
One or more unknown
kings? |
fl c.1370 BC |
Tarhundaradus
/ Tarhunta-Radu |
'Great King'.
Expanded the kingdom to its greatest extent. |
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Stronger than
Hittite
king Tudhaliya IV (III), Tarhundaradus redraws Arzawa's frontier to a line
between Tuwanuwa and Tyana, a hundred miles to the south of Hattusa, and
along to Uda. With the king being a contributor to the
Egyptian
Amarna letters, Arzawa still uses the Hittite language. Egypt attempts to
weaken the Hittites (or recognises that they may have ceased to exist as
a viable state) by establishing good relations and proposing a diplomatic
marriage with Arzawa, as well as requesting some of the
Kaskan people of whom the
pharaoh has heard. Apparently, Arzawa is strong enough to reach past the
Hittites and take Kaskan prisoners for itself.
The
Hittites under Suppiluliuma eventually manage to destroy the Arzawan
fort of Sallapare and retake Tuwanuwa, thought to be on Arzawa's eastern
edge. Arzawa also loses its eastern coastal strip of
Tarhuntassa at around
the same time (the first part of that name bears a startling similarity to
the first part of the Arzawan king's own name). However, the state still
holds the rest of its territory intact, which seems to be made up of a
series of tribal areas according to Hittite documents (it is possible that
it always remains this way, as witnessed by the later regional feuding
within the state). |
fl c.1350s BC |
Anzapahhadu |
Stood against
Hittites
but was defeated. |
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Anzapahhadu
routs an incursion under the
Hittite
general, Himuili, but succumbs to the next one under Suppiluliuma. Arzawa seems
to fragment to an extent. Non-Hittite rulers emerge in various locations within
the state, and rule independently of one another and in continual conflict
with each other. Probably the northernmost, the kingdom of Mira borders the
Arzawan state of Masa (ruler unknown until about 1323 BC, but possibly the
later kingdom of Mysia) and the
kingdom of Wilusa, while south
of it is the Seha River Land kingdom (the River Seha can tentatively be
identified with the classical Hermos, the modern Gediz). |
1343/42 BC |
Piyama-Kurunda |
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1342/41 BC |
Tapalazunaulis |
Remained king
during 'northern borderland' period, below? |
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A period begins here which can be labelled the 'northern
borderland' period. Muwa-Walwis is king of the Seha River Land in north-western
Arzawa. The name meaning 'Lion-Might', he is probably renowned for his courage
and success in battle. Whether he remains a subject of the Arzawan king is
entirely speculative as no records survive to support a theory, but he is
clearly an important figure. He may be responsible for carving out a territory
of his own along much of Arzawa's northern border which includes Mira and Happalla,
and following his death his sons vie for control of the entire territory. |
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Muwa-Walwis
('Lion-Might') |
King of the
Seha River Land. |
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Muwa-Walwis or Muwawalwi ('muwa' meaning 'might' and 'walwis' meaning 'lion',
extrapolated to produce something descriptive such as 'mighty lion') bequeaths
his territory to Manappa-Tarhunta, probably one of his younger sons, leaving
the others to plot in secret. They all seem to have minor kingdoms of their
own, all along Arzawa's northern borders, but perhaps the Seha River Land is
their homeland and the other holdings are lesser positions. The various
usurpations and restorations become quite complicated during this period as
the brothers vie for superiority amidst continual
Hittite
interference.
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The state in north-western Arzawa known as the Seha River
Land was based along the river of the same name, tentatively
identified as the River Hermos or Hermus in classical texts
and today's River Gediz in western Turkey
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fl c.1340 - 1336
BC |
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Manappa-Tarhunta |
Son. King of the
Seha River Land. His throne briefly usurped. |
fl c.1340 - 1320
BC |
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Mashhiuiluwa /
Maskhuiluwas |
Brother. King
of Mira. Forced to flee. Returned as
Hittite
ally. |
fl c.1340 - 1315
BC |
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Targashnalli /
Targasnallis |
Brother. King
of Happalla. |
before c.1336 BC |
Mashhiuiluwa's brothers besiege him at Mira and force him to flee to the
Hittite
capital. One of these brothers has a son named Kupanta-Kurunta after the Arzawan
who had previously stood up to the Hittites (around1430 BC), and it is this
Kupanta-Kurunta who is installed as king of Mira. Suppiluliumas of the Hittites
is quite aware that this revolt is dangerous for his frontier so he marries his
daughter Muwatti to Mashhiuiluwa, after which the couple return to Mira. Precisely
when and how Mashhiuiluwa regains his throne is unclear, but this does indeed
appear to take place. |
c.1336 - 1333? BC |
In the
meantime, Manapa-Tarhunta's brothers, led by Ura-Tarhunta, plot to kill him, but
he escapes to Karkissa (Caria),
and Ura-Tarhunta claims his throne. With Suppiluliumas now dead,
Hittite
joint king Mursili II tries writing to Ura-Tarhunta but is ignored. Both
Mursili and his incapacitated brother, Arnuwanda II, then both write to the
men of Karkissa, asking them to keep Manapa-Tarhunta safe. |
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From this point onwards, some dates given for Arzawan
kings appear to be too generous, with the state falling around 1250 BC in
this timeline. In opposition to this is a well-documented campaign, contained
within the 'Ten Year Annals', by the young
Hittite
king, Mursili II. He invades Arzawa and captures it within two years. Given
that his reign ends around 1308 BC, the Arzawan dates have been compressed
to fall into line (the alternative, too-generous dates are shown in
parenthesis). |
fl c.1330s BC |
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Ura-Tarhunta |
Brother. Usurper
king of the Seha River Land. Deposed. |
before c.1336 BC |
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Kupanta-Kurunta |
Son of one of the
brothers. Usurper king of Mira. (fl c.1320 BC.) |
c.1336 - 1333? BC |
Ura-Tarhunta has proven to be both an ineffectual and unpopular usurper, and
his subjects are clearly becoming unhappy with him in command. The
incapacitated
Hittite
joint king, Arnuwanda II, lives long enough to witness a revolt throw out
Ura-Tarhunta and reinstall Manapa-Tarhunta. |
c.1333 - 1315 BC |
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Manappa-Tarhunta |
Restored to
the throne of the Seha River Land. |
c.1333 - 1320 BC |
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Mashhiuiluwa /
Maskhuiluwas |
Restored to the
throne of Mira as a
Hittite
ally. Removed. |
fl 1330s BC |
Uhhaziti
/ Uhha-Ziti |
Took over the main
body of Arzawa. Incapacitated c.1326 BC. |
c.1335? - 1327 BC |
(Or
c.1310-1270 BC.) Uhhaziti clearly causes the
Hittites
problems. They label him a rebel, probably because he manages to reunify much
of Arzawa in the face of their likely attempts to keep it fragmented, and
even allying himself with
Ahhiyawa. Manappa-Tarhunta
(the Seha River Land king) is clearly a client of his, so it is likely that
the other kings of the northern borderlands are also clients. His base is
the city of Apasas, a western port town (possibly Ephesos, due to the phonetic
similarity).
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The Roman city of Ephesos in western Turkey was built out of the
successful Greek city which preceded it, but it does seem likely
that the Greeks inherited it from the state of Arzawa where it
was known as Apasas
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fl c.1327 BC |
Piyama-Kurunta |
Son of Uhhaziti.
Capital unknown. Surrendered. (fl c.1260 BC.) |
c.1326 - 1325 BC |
(Or c.1250 BC or, perhaps more realistically, c.1306-1305 BC.) Devoting
attention to areas of Anatolia which had been ignored by his father,
Hittite
King Mursili II and his brother, the king of
Carchemish, invade
Arzawa. Mashhiuiluwa of Mira reports that King Uhhaziti is incapacitated,
so Mursili attacks the allied
Ahhiyawan forces. Piyama-Kurunta
and his father have long struggled to keep the Hittites out of Arzawa but
after the death of Uhhaziti, his son eventually realises that his cause is
lost. He surrenders and is deported to Hattusa.
After having spent a second year in the region, mopping up resistance,
especially around the Seha River Land territory, Mursili II signs a treaty
with the minor Arzawan kingdoms of Mira (with Kuwaliya now attached), Happalla
(or Hapalla), and Seha River Land (with Appawiya attached). He recognises
their occupants as free men and, of course, Hittite clients. Each kingdom
receives a new king in the form of an Arzawan prince (quite possibly the
existing kings reinstalled, but now as Hittite subjects), with loyalty
gained by treaty and through inducements. Arzawa disappears as a cohesive
state. However, it retains a special status even as a Hittite subject. |
fl c.1323 BC |
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? |
Client king of Masa
(between Mira &
Wilusa). Killed by Mursili? |
c.1323 BC |
Mashhiuiluwa of Mira joins up with an otherwise unknown king of Masa in
Arzawa in rebellion against Mursili II. The
Hittite
king invades Masa and Mira, causing great damage in the latter. The king of
Masa is presumably killed and Mashhiuiluwa is handed over by the dead king's
people, to be deported back to Hattusa. His adopted son, the usurping
Kupanta-Kurunta of about 1336 BC, is handed the throne. |
c.1323 - 1270s BC |
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Kupanta-Kurunta |
Client king of Mira.
Survived into Hattusili III's reign. |
fl c.1320? BC |
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Tarkasnawa |
Client king of Mira.
Last recorded king there. (fl c.1260? BC.) |
c.1320 BC |
Perhaps initially being king in Happalla before being replaced by Ura-Hattusa,
Tarkasnawa may be responsible for creating a strong state in Mira which, to
a degree' recaptures some of Arzawa's former glory. Shown in his digraphic
silver seal as Tarkondemos, he seems to establish himself as a figure
comparable to the near-contemporary Karunta of
Tarhuntassa who is able
to seize the
Hittite throne for a few years. He is addressed with the same 'Great
King' courtesies as his forebear, Tarhundaradus (fl c.1370 BC). |
fl c.1315 - 1308
BC |
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Ura-Hattusa |
Client king of
Happalla. |
fl c.1310? BC |
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Mashturi /
Masduri |
Son of Kupanta.
Client king of Seha River Land. (fl c.1280 BC.) |
fl c.1300? BC |
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Piyama-Radu |
Brother. King?
Seized Wilusa. Overthrown by
Hittites. |
c.1295 BC |
Piyama-Radu
is mentioned in connection with Arzawa and
Wilusa, and apparently seizes the
throne of the latter before being overthrown by the
Hittites.
Whether he is a king in part of Arzawa who has been pushed aside by the Hittites
or perhaps a member of a royal house is not known, but he does seem to have the
intention of asserting a rightful status to rule.
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This Hittite tablet mentions the kingdom of Arzawa, although
generally the Anatolia kingdom is little-known and barely
mentioned in the historical record
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c.1280 BC |
At Mira,
Kupanta-Kurunta is considered to be a
Hittite
family member so Alaksandu of Wilusa
is duty-bound to help him even against his own people if need be. The kingdom of
Masa (on Wilusa's south-eastern border) attacks Alaksandu and is destroyed
(again) by the Hittite king, Muwatalli II. |
c.1275 BC |
The
Hittite prince,
Hattusili III, deposes Mursili III and establishes his own powerbase in Arzawa,
where he is supported by the populace. Hattusili makes Mursili's son, Karunta,
'king of Tarhuntassa', while
exiling Mursili himself.
With the Hittites now firmly in control of Arzawa, specific mentions of it
in contemporary documents seem to fade out almost entirely. The only subsequent
incident of note is a client king of the Seha River Land (showing that the
client kings continue to hold office in at least one of the 'northern borderland'
territories) who causes some problems for the Hittites during the reign of
Tudhaliya V (IV). The Hittite king himself may be deposed for a short period,
so his rule could possibly witness a period of comparative weakness for the
Hittites. |
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fl c.1245? BC |
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Tarhuna-Radu |
Client king of the
Seha River Land. Stirred up trouble. |
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Tudhaliya V (IV) of the
Hittites
complains that Ahhiyawa is
behind rumblings of trouble from Tarhuna-Radu in the Seha River Land. The
Hittites have repeatedly asked Ahhiyawa's king for cooperation in maintaining
stability in western Anatolia but, whatever the unrecorded response, the
pleas seem not to lead to any reduced insurrectionist activity in the
western Hittite states: '...Thereafter, Tarhuna-Radu waged war [against
the Hittites] and relied on the king of Ahhiyawa [for support]. And he took
refuge on Eagle Peak (ie. Mount Harana)'.
Tarhuna-Radu faces a Hittite military expedition led by the king in person
(the first such visit since Arzawa's fall) which raids Eagle Peak, captures
him, his family, and followers, and ships them all eastwards. An unnamed
descendant of Muwa-Walwis is placed in command of the Seha River Land,
possibly the last such client king before disaster falls upon Hittite
Anatolia. |
fl c.1230s? BC |
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? |
Unnamed successor
client king of the Seha River Land. |
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c.1200 BC |
Decaying
from late in the thirteenth century BC, as
Assyria
rises and instability grips the Mediterranean coast, the
Hittite
empire is looted and destroyed by various surrounding peoples, including the
Kaskans and the
Sea Peoples (and perhaps
even selectively by its own populace). Arzawa would also appear to be a
victim of the Sea Peoples and is largely abandoned for at least a century.
In part the neo-Hittite kingdom of
Maeonia emerges
to take Arzawa's place, along with the
Phrygian kingdom, while there
is the slight possibility that, given its probable position in the north of
Arzawa, the sub-kingdom of Masa may in fact be the kingdom of
Mysia, which survives a little
longer. |
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