African Kingdoms

c.350

Details of the two hundred years from the fall of Kush to the middle of the sixth century are unknown. Nubia is inhabited by a people whom ancient geographers call the Nobatae (and have been labelled the X-Group by modern archaeologists, who are still at a loss to explain their origins). The Nobatae are clearly the heirs of Kush, as their whole cultural life is dominated by Meroitic crafts and customs, and occasionally they even feel themselves sufficiently strong, in alliance with the nomadic Blemmyes (the Beja of eastern modern Sudan), to attack the Romans in Upper Egypt. When this happens, the Romans retaliate, defeating the Nobatae and Blemmyes and driving them into obscurity once again.

This Nubian burial mound of a Nobatian king was discovered at Ballana, Lower Nubia, during excavations that were carried out in the 1930s, in the late phase of perhaps the most glamorous period of early archaeological discovery in North Africa

c.530

A Greek inscription by Silko at Kalabsha may be dated to around this time. Silko refers to himself as 'Basiliskos', or kinglet, of the Nobatae, and describes fighting the Blemmyes from Ibrim to Shellal and extracting an oath of submission from them. These would probably be the same Blemmyes who were defeated by Roman Emperor Diocletian in AD 297 when he called in a people known as the Nobate from the oases of the western Egyptian desert (on the fringes of Kush), to defend the southern frontier of the empire at Aswan.

fl c.536 - 555

Accepted Eastern Roman Christianity.

543 - 545

This period sees missionary work carried out by Julian, who proselytises in Nobatia on behalf of the Eastern Roman empire. The new religion appears to be adopted with considerable enthusiasm.

c.559 - c.590

Christian. Last king at Nobatia?

fl 574/577

A rival, or sub-king?

c.574

Tokiltoeton is primarily known from a foundation inscription at the fortified settlement of Ikhmindi in Lower Nubia. This is a heavily fortified settlement founded either late in the pre-Christian era or at the start of the Christian era. It contains two churches, suggesting occupation continues at least into Nubia's medieval golden age. The inscription suggests that Tokiltoeton is responsible for the fortification work.

c.590

Christian missionaries from the Eastern Roman empire convert the Nubians. It is at this time, perhaps coincidentally, that records for Nobatia stop and those for Dongola seem to start, suggesting a relocation of the capital or a re-founding at a new location due to circumstances unknown.

535 - 537

The earliest-known church appears in Nubia, converted from a temple of Isis. The land is once more brought into the orbit of the Mediterranean world by Christian missionaries from the Eastern Roman empire, who are starting to make their way along the Nile and into the Nubian kingdoms.

543 - 545

This period sees missionary work carried out by Julian, who proselytises in Nobatia on behalf of the Eastern Roman empire. The new religion appears to be adopted with considerable enthusiasm.

The Ballana burial mound discovered by archaeologists in Lower Nubia in the 1930s contained the body of a Nubian king complete with his crown, one arm reaching outwards with a bracelet still on that arm

c.590

By this time the kingdom of Nobatia/Dongola has converted to Christianity, as has Alodia. But, after the work of the Eastern Roman missionaries has been concluded, the kingdoms sink back into relative obscurity, and only re-emerge in the seventh century. Archaeological work has uncovered some elements of Old Dongola's construction, though. Two main churches are built, termed 'Building X' and the 'Church with the Stone Pavement' by archaeologists. They are positioned just a hundred metres outside the original city walls, indicating considerable expansion in a little over a century of Old Dongola's existence. 'Building X' is soon replaced by a new construction on the same site, the 'Old Church'.

Could it be the missionary work in this period that introduces possible Germanic elements into the region and helps to form Alodia? Given Dongola's apparent dominance of northern Nubia at this time, Alodia may be a splinter state, perhaps formed when Subah is seized by a new group who are sufficiently powerful to deny Dongola's authority, although this is just a theory.

640 - 642

Egypt is conquered by Islamic armies in 640-641, and Nubia is cut off from the rest of Christianity. The following year, Islamic forces venture south, fighting the Nubians of Dongola at the First Battle of Dongola (perhaps more a series of skirmishes and Nubian guerrilla tactics than an outright battle). The Nubians win the encounter(s), showering the invaders with lethal hails of arrows and halting Arab advances south of Egypt in a rare Islamic defeat for this period.

c.645 - 655

651 - 652

Successfully resisted the Islamic invasion.

652

An invading Islamic army is repulsed at the Second Battle of Dongola, otherwise known as the Siege of Dongola. The Arabs lay siege to Old Dongola, using a catapult to fire into the city. The two main Christian churches, the 'Old Church' and the 'Church with the Stone Pavement', are destroyed around this time, probably by this very means. Nubian resistance is fierce, especially from the lethal archers, and the Arabs suffer heavy losses. No longer able to continue an attack which the Dongolan king, Qalidurut, shows every sign of continuing to resist, the Arab commander agrees a treaty known as the baqt, which ensures peace between Egypt and Dongola until the thirteenth century. Both the damaged churches are rebuilt soon afterwards, but the 'Old Church' also loses material that is taken to patch the city walls.

Around the same time, Dongola expands to annexe its northern neighbour, Nobatia (if it has not already done so and if the kingdoms are not one and the same). The use of the names Makuria and Nobatia at some points after this may imply the creation of a dual monarchy.

In a rare defeat during the seventh century, the invading Arab army found itself unsuccessful when it tried to take the fortress of Old Dongola during its second attempt to capture the kingdom

c.697 - c.722

c.690s

The archaeologist-named 'Church of the Granite Columns' is constructed on the site of the 'Old Church' towards the end of the seventh century. It is a comparatively grand building, suggesting that it might be serving as Old Dongola's cathedral.

c.722 - c.738

c.738 - c.744

c.744

The succession here is confused, with two permutations available. Alternative dates are shown in red.

c.744 - c.748

Or c.744-c.768.

c.748 - c.760

Or c.780-c.790

c.750 - 1150

Despite the poor availability of records to date even its kings properly, the kingdom is known to be stable and prosperous, enjoying a golden age that lasts for about four centuries.

c.760

Or c.768-c.780.

c.760 - c.768

c.790 - c.810

c.810 - c.822

c.822 - c.831

Deposed.

c.831

Held the throne very briefly.

c.831 - c.854

Restored to the throne. Died c.854.

c.854 - c.860

A product of Islamic influence or of Arab birth?

c.860 - c.870

c.872 - 892

892 - c.912

c.900

In the south of Nubia another kingdom emerges. Named Dotawo, it has a capital at Dau (modern Djabel-Adda), but it may not be a kingdom at all, merely a colony of Makuria. In Old Dongola, the 'Church with the Stone Pavement' is demolished and the 'Cruciform Church' is built in its place, although many other churches also exist by now.

c.912 - c.943

c.943 - c.958

Only the second king with an Islamic influence.

c.958 - c.969

c.969 - c.980

969 - 1174

Makuria conquers its rival medieval Nubian state at Alodia, uniting two of the region's largest states during the late Nubian golden age. At the same time, during the patriarchate of Philotheos (979-1003), King Georgios II receives an appeal for transmission to the patriarch from an unnamed ruler of Ethiopia who is seeking the appointment of a new Metropolitan. The letter describes how a woman, apparently queen of the Bani al-Hamuya (the script of the Arabic text lends itself to various interpretations), is laying waste to the country and is harrying the emperor and his followers from place to place in an effort to wipe out Christianity completely.

c.980 - c.999

c.999 - c.1030

c.1030 - 1080

mid-1000s

Royal marriages are facilitated with the restoration in the middle of the century of the principle of the son of the royal sister inheriting the Makurian throne. Strong royal authority diminishes in the face of progressing feudalisation, leaving the kingdom in the hands of an extensive group of local dignitaries drawn from the royal family and the state administration. The sons of the ruling king increasingly often became bishops in the church and a number of rulers spend the remaining years of their lives after abdication in monasteries, sometimes outside the kingdom. This obviously does not favour political stability within the state.

1080 - 1089

1089 - 1130

1130 - 1171

King Moses George of Dotawo?

1171 - 1272

The kingdom enters a sharp decline, due in part to increased Bedouin attacks after these tribes people have been pushed south by the Ayyubids. Cities have to be defended by new walls, buildings are made stronger, and some settlements are moved to more defendable locations. Control over Alodia is lost and Makurian-Egyptian relations cool. The expedition lead by Saladin's brother against Makuria, which terminates in the taking of Qasr Ibrim and the garrisoning of troops in the fortress there for a period of several years results in growing animosity. The baqt is forgotten.

The 'Church of the Granite Columns' remained in use during Nubia's golden age and decline, but following the kingdom's collapse, the entire city fell into decay and ruin

1171 - 1210

King Moses George of Dotawo?

Despite the efforts of Moise Georgios, no peace is negotiated between Makuria and the Ayyubids. The consequences are serious for the Nubian kingdom. Food imports from Egypt are reduced substantially, forcing Makuria toward greater agricultural self-sufficiency. The granary supervisor becomes one of the leading officials in the kingdom. Considerable effort is put in building new fortifications or refurbishing existing but neglected defences. A progressive Nubianisation of church and state administration occurs, with Greek and Coptic losing preference as the official languages in favour of Old Nubian. All of the literature in the kingdom is translated into the kingdom's vernacular at this time. Relations with Alodia are also strengthened, apparently by blood ties between the two ruling families.

1210 - 1268

1268 - 1274

King David of Dotawo?

1274 - 1276

Forced to flee a Bahri Mameluke attack.

1276

A Bahri Mameluke army under the command of Malik Zahir, deputy leader to Baybars in Egypt, is claimed to conquer Sudan. This is an uncertain time for Sudan, with few records to back up any such claim, but David II is indeed forced to flee a Mameluke attack. Whether this attack is a definitive conquest is much harder to say, but it is viewed by Arab sources as a great victory.

1276 - c.1277

c.1277 - 1279

1279 - 1286

1286 - 1288

King George Simon of Dotawo?

1288 - ?

Name unknown.

Restored.

1290

Name unknown.

1290 - 1293

Restored for a second time.

1293 - 1304

Increased aggression from Mameluke Egypt and internal discord begins the state's fading and collapse. Following the Egyptian sack of Makuria, the native kings are supplanted by Mameluke rulers, although it is not clear if they are puppets of Egypt, governors, or independent rulers. Mameluke rulers are shown in green.

1293 - ?

Mameluke ruler.

? - 1304

Mameluke ruler.

1304

Native rulers are restored to the throne of Dongola, but the kingdom's disintegration continues.

1304 - 1305

1305 - 1312

Officially replaced by a Nubian Muslim.

1312 - 1312/15

1312/15 - 1323?

Mameluke client kings from Egypt again secure control of the kingdom. An inscription erected in Old Dongola in 1317 by Saif ad-Din'Abdallah Bershambo is taken as the record of a military expedition from Egypt which places him in command of Old Dongola in the name of Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad I of Egypt.

1312/15 - 1320

Mameluke ruler.

1320 - 1323

Mameluke ruler.

1323

Mameluke ruler, held the throne for three days.

1323

Once again the Mameluke possessors of Dongola are replaced by a native ruler, but it is too late to save the kingdom. Kerembes' hold on power is short-lived, and when he is replaced, he is the last of his kind.

1323

Restored. Last Nubian king.

1323 - ?

Mameluke ruler restored.

1314 - 1324

The kingdom collapses, most especially due to the aggression from Egypt. It is possible, given the apparent overlaps with Dotawo's kings, that Makuria's rulers flee south to that city which becomes their final bolt-hole. Egypt's interference also sees Arabic speech and religion gradually seep into Nubia over the course of the century, and the region's other medieval state, Alodia, also fades into obscurity and eventual replacement by the Abdallab empire.

fl c.1350

Mameluke ruler.

c.1350

Egyptian governance of Makuria continues for a while, but that too appears to fade into obscurity, leaving large areas of Nubia either ungoverned or ruled by locals on a piecemeal basis. Old Dongola remains populated until the nineteenth century, when the population migrates about eighty kilometres (fifty miles) to the north, crosses the Nile, and founds (modern) Dongola.

c.1480 - 1504

Founded the empire after conquering Alodia.

1504

The Funj have recently been migrating into Nubia from the Sudd, forced out by pressure from the Shilluk people. Once in Nubia, they defeat Abdullah Jamma, absorb his short-lived Abdallab empire, and set up the Arabic-speaking Funj sultanate of Sinnar. This rules the region for three centuries, although other minor states also exist in Sudan at the same time.

The Christian church in Nubia was extinguished by the creation of the Abdallab empire, leaving frescoes such as this to be later saved by museums

Nubian-speaking peoples are pushed further north by the creation of the sultanate and its use of the Arabic tongue. Although the name of Nubia is still used to describe North Sudan, the Arabic Bilad es-Sudan or 'Land of the Blacks' slowly gains prominence. The Arab empire, if it ever even exists, is soon threatened by the ingress of the Funj people from the south, and Nubia soon gains another new master.

1503 - 1533

Founded the sultanate.

1517

Egypt and Libya are conquered by the Ottoman empire under Selim I Yavuz. In the Funj sultanate, Amara Dunqas skilfully negotiates his way out of further Ottoman conquest, securing his newly-won borders in the process.

This map shows the locations of the various minor states which would eventually go into making up modern Ethiopia, along with several neighbouring Muslim states such as the Funj sultanate of Sinnar - Dankali holds the origins of modern Djibouti within its borders (click or tap on map to view full sized)

1533 - 1550/1

1550/1 - 1557/8

1557/8 - 1568

1568 - 1585/6

Son of Nayil.

1585/6 - 1587/8

1587/8 - 1591

1591 - 1603/4

Apparently a weak king.

1603/4 - 1606

Son. Deposed by Adlan I.

1606

Although he is deposed by his brother, Abd al-Qadir is a friend of the Ethiopian Emperor Susneyos I. At some point after this date, the deposed sultan is appointed governor of Chilga (also known as Ayikel), an important trading town near the Ethiopian border with Sinnar.

1606 - 1611/2

Brother. Deposed by Badi I.

1611/2 - 1616/7

Nephew.

1615

Emperor Susenyos conquers and annexes the kingdom of Fazughli into the Ethiopian empire, on Sinnar's borders. The emperor subsequently sends priests to renew the Orthodox Christianity of the province, although the missionaries appear to achieve little, seemingly becoming mired in doctrinal disputes.

1616

The period of the great kings begins with the reign of Rubat I. These three kings open diplomatic and commercial relations with the Islamic heartlands, establishing at Sinnar the first fixed urban capital for their hitherto agrarian realm. They build this new city as part of a large and cosmopolitan metropolis by dispatching royal caravans to attract foreigners with valuable goods and skills.

A painting of a warrior from the sultanate of Sinnar, purportedly completed in the nineteenth century, within living memory of the sultanate's existence

Unfortunately, these more intimate contacts with the outside world begin to expose features of Funj society, notably the matrilineal descent of its nobles and the royal dominance over foreign commerce. These features inevitably appear controversial from the cultural perspective of Sudan's northern neighbours.

1616/7 - 1644/5

Son. First of the great kings.

During the reign of Rubat I, the kingdom of Taqali to the west of Sinnar is conquered and made a Funj vassal state.

1644/5 - 1681

Second of the great kings.

1618 - 1619

Relations with Ethiopia have been deteriorating since the reign of Badi I as the Funj press southwards up the Blue Nile to annexe the gold-producing land of Fazughli. In this period major Ethiopian invasions designed to reclaim the valuable territory and kick out the Funj are repulsed.

1681 - 1692

Third of the great kings.

1692 - 1716

Son.

1716 - 1720

Son.

1719

Cultural dissidence expresses itself in the rise of towns, whose numbers increased from one in 1700 to about thirty by 1821, and in accelerating political chaos. The royal practice of matrilineal descent is abandoned in this year.

1720 - 1724

1724 - 1762

Son.

1744

Another Ethiopian invasion takes place. This is part of continuing problems between the two states now that Ethiopian territories border those of Sinnar.

c.1750s

An increasingly bitter struggle has been developing between Sinnar and its Fur-speaking western neighbours of the Keira dynasty of Dar Fur over the vast gold-producing region of Kordofan that lies between the respective heartlands of the two kingdoms. In the middle of the century, the Musabba'at, a defeated and exiled faction of the royal family of Dar Fur, settles in Kordofan and uses it as a base for an attempted re-conquest of their homeland.

1762

A military strongman named Muhammad Abu Likaylik of the Hamaj launches a coup which overthrows Badi IV. Under the control of this military 'regent', the monarchy is reduced to little more than a puppet. From this point forwards, the Hamaj 'regents' and the military are in control of the sultanate despite attempts by the rightful rulers to dispose of them. To emphasise the lack of control experienced by the sultans, they are shown with a shaded background.

1762 - 1769

Son. Reason for overlap in rule with next sultan is unclear.

1768 - 1776

Brother.

1775 - 1776

During his lifetime, the Hamaj 'regent', Muhammad Abu Likayik, had administered the sultanate very well, but following his death there is factional in-fighting amongst his successors and rebellions by the Funj sultans, which hastens the sultanate's decline.

1776 - 1787

Son.

1785

From this point onwards, the Dar Fur sultans strike eastwards into Sinnar's territory in order to impose their rule at the expense of both Funj and Musabba'at.

1787

The Hamaj military 'regent', Rajab wad Muhammad, is defeated at the Battle of Taras by Sultan Adlan II, although it appears not to change the situation whereby the sultanate is governed from behind the throne.

1787 - 1788

1788 - 1789

1789 - 1790

Son.

1790 - 1791

1791 - 1792

1792 - 1798

Son of Tabl II. Deposed - by Hamaj Idris wad Abu Likayik?

1798 - 1804

1800

Sinnar is already exhibiting the signs of internal weakness that begin to attract attention from Egypt in the north. The urbanised fragments of the old agrarian realm have lapsed into a state of interminable civil war. Such is the state of Funj, many dissidents welcome the invasion from Egypt when it comes.

Napoleon's invasion of Egypt may have spelled the end of the dominance of Ottoman walis, but it served to reinvigorate local rule in the country, so that it was soon expanding its borders

1804 - 1805

Name suspiciously similar to the Hamaj 'regent', Adlan.

1805 - 1821

Restored, as true king, without a 'regent'.

1811

After arranging a coup on 1 March in which most of the leading Mameluke beys of Egypt are murdered, Pasha Muhammad Ali takes full control of the country. Surviving Mamelukes flee southwards, entering Sudan, where they set up a slaving centre at Dongola.

1820 - 1821

The sultan of Sinnar informs Egypt that he is unable to obey an order to expel the Mamelukes, and this serves as a pretext for the Egyptian invasion of the country. The greatly weakened and virtually defenceless sultanate is destroyed in the process, being formally terminated in 15 July 1821. In return for his meek surrender and handing over the kingdom, Badi is allowed to remain governor of Sinnar itself under Egyptian rule.

1820 - 1821

Egyptian military commander.

1820 - 1822

Ismail, son of Muhammad Ali had conquered Sudan, destroying the Funj sultanate of Sinnar in short order. Now he retains initial supreme command of the conquered Sudan before making way for subsequent military commanders. A governor-generalship is eventually established in order to control the country in Egypt's name.

The Ottoman wali, Muhammad Ali Pasha, saw the opportunity provided to him by the weakened Mamelukes and seized control, founding his own royal dynasty which ruled Egypt until 1953 (oil on canvas by Auguste Couder, 1840)

1821 - 1824

Egyptian military commander.

1824 - 1825

Egyptian military commander.

1825 - 1826

Egyptian military commander.

1826 - 1838

First Egyptian governor-general (hakimadar).

1838 - 1843

1843 - 1844

Name unknown.

1844 - 1845

Egyptian military commander.

1845 - 1849

1849 - 1850

Name unknown.

1850 - 1851

1851 - 1852

1852 - 1853

1853 - 1854

1854

1854 - 1855

Name unknown.

1855 - 1857

1857 - 1858

Acting governor-general.

1859 - 1861

1861 - 1862

1862 - 1865

1865

Acting governor-general.

1865 - 1866

1866 - 1871

1869

The Suez Canal is opened, greatly increasing the economic and strategic importance of both Egypt and Sudan. Britain buys the khedive's share in the canal in 1875 (official recognition of the elevation from wali to khedive of Egypt had been recognised by the Ottoman sultan in 1867).

1871 - 1872

1872

Acting governor-general.

1872 - 1877

1872 - 1876

Egypt under Isma'il Pasha conquers South Sudan between 1872-1874. The eventual intent is to fully unite Egypt and Sudan as one single state under Egyptian rule. However, a further annexation of 1875 leads to a state of (largely inactive) war with Ethiopia. The Egyptians are defeated and driven back in the first two battles, Gundet in 1875 and Gura in 1876, after which actual hostilities cease.

1877 - 1879

British Governor-General Gordon Pasha.

1879 - 1882

1881 - 1883

The Sudanese revolt is led by Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abd Allah, the Mahdi (the Guided One), against Turco-Egyptian administration. It quickly gains popularity amongst the disaffected and fractured Sudanese people.

1882

Acting governor-general.

1882 - 1883

1883

1883 - 1884

British Governor-General Hicks Pasha.

1883

The Anglo-Egyptian army under William Hicks is destroyed by the Mahdi's forces at the Battle of El Obeid, commanded by Abdallahi ibn Muhammad.

1884 - 1885

British Governor-General Gordon Pasha, second term. Killed.

1885

The death of British Governor-General Charles George Gordon (better known as Gordon of Khartoum) and the massacre of the garrison during the siege of Khartoum causes Britain and Egypt to withdraw their forces from Sudan. The Mahdi is left governing the country as a theocracy. He does not impose Islamic law but does impose a strict rule that authorises the destruction of mosques and the burning of books and lists containing pedigrees. He maintains that his rule must be obeyed completely.

The siege of Khartoum began in 1884 when the Mahdist forces surrounded the city, shortly after the arrival of General Gordon as shown here - but the Mahdi's victory would be short-lived

1885

'The Mahdi'. Religious dictator. Died of typhus.

1885

The Mahdi dies of typhus just six months after gaining control of Sudan. There is a short struggle amongst his deputies to see which one will succeed him. The winner enforces a brutal rule, appointing 'ansars' (helpers) to rule as emirs (princes) over the regions.

1885 - 1899

Khalifa (successor). Captured and killed.

1887 - 1889

A 60,000-strong army under the ansars enters neighbouring Ethiopia. It gets as far as Gondar, the former imperial capital of the Begemder province. The city is sacked, and at the start of 1888 the Sudanese set fire to almost all of its churches, devastating the whole city. In 1889, King Yohannes IV of Ethiopia marches on Metemma in Sudan, but is killed in battle. Ethiopia withdraws.

1889 - 1893

The Khalifa's general, Abd ar Rahman an Nujumi, attempts an invasion of Egypt, but Egyptian troops under British command defeat him in battle at Tushkah in 1889. The failure of the invasion destroys the myth of the general's invincibility and several subsequent defeats are inflicted on Sudanese forces. Belgian forces successfully defend Equatoria from a Sudanese invasion and, in 1893, Italian forces push back an attack on Akordat in Eritrea. The Sudanese are forced out of Ethiopia entirely.

1893

A Sudanese warlord and slave trader named Rabih az-Zubayr invades the Bornu empire from eastern Sudan and quickly conquers the ruling dynasty. As Rabah 'the Conqueror', he rules the empire himself as head of the Zobeir dynasty.

1896 - 1898

The British appoint Major-General Sir Horatio Herbert Kitchener to lead an expedition from Egypt into Sudan in order to quell the Mahdi's uprising once and for all, secure the Nile, and prevent other European forces from making their own claims on the war-torn country. His campaign culminates in the Battle of Omdurman on 2 September 1898 in which the Mahdi army is destroyed by European firepower and organisation.

1898 - 1899

British military commander.

1899

Following the 1898 defeat, an agreement is reached which establishes Anglo-Egyptian rule. Sudan is run by a governor-general who is appointed by Egypt with British consent.

1899

First British governor-general following restoration of power.

1899 - 1916

1917 - 1924

Assassinated in Cairo.

1924 - 1925

Acting governor-general.

1925 - 1926

1926 - 1934

1934 - 1940

1940 - 1947

1947 - 1954

1954 - 1955

Last British governor-general prior to independence.

1956

The country gains independence from the republic of Egypt and from its colonial overlords in Britain.

1956 - 1958

It takes just two years of independence under a sovereignty committee before General Abbud leads a military coup against the civilian government that is elected that year. However, the country is already divided, having been so from 1955 when the First Sudanese Civil War had been triggered by concerns in the south that the north would attempt to dominate the newly independent country.

1958 - 1964

Military dictator.

1962 - 1964

The Anya Nya movement that had been formed from southern army officers continues to fight a guerrilla action against troops of the north. In 1964, the 'October Revolution' overthrows Abbud and a national government is established under a sovereignty committee.

1969

Jafar Numayri leads the 'May Revolution' military coup which overthrows the presidency of Ismail al-Azhari. In 1971 the Sudanese Communist Party leaders are executed after a short-lived coup against Numayri.

1969 - 1985

Dictator and, from 1971, president. Died 2009.

1972

The First Sudanese Civil War, which started in 1955, finally ends with the Addis Ababa peace agreement between the government and the Anya Nya. Under its terms, the south becomes a self-governing region. There follows a decade of peace in Sudan.

These fighters from the Justice and Equality Movement fought the Second Sudanese Civil War along with the Sudan Liberation Movement, with the result that a coalition government was formed in 1985 and the country was returned to a level of democracy

1983 - 1985

President Numayri attempts to create a federated Sudan as a way of working around (ignoring) the Addis Ababa agreement and restoring control over the south. The Second Sudanese Civil War breaks out in the south involving government forces and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM), led by John Garang. The situation is made worse when Numayri imposes Sharia Islamic law in the same year. After widespread popular unrest, in 1985 Numayri is deposed by a group of officers and a Transitional Military Council is set up to rule the country. A coalition government is formed the following year after general elections, with Sadiq al-Mahdi as prime minister.

1985 - 1986

Commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

1989 - 1993

The National Salvation Revolution takes over in a bloodless military coup. By 1993, the Revolution Command Council is dissolved after Omar al-Bashir is appointed president. He rules what is effectively an authoritarian dictatorship.

1989 - 2019

Military dictator and, from 1993, self-appointed president.

2003 - 2005

In February 2003, rebels in the western region of Darfur rise up against the government, claiming the region is being neglected by Khartoum. In January the following year, the army moves to quell the rebel uprising and hundreds of thousands of refugees flee to neighbouring Chad. In 2005 a peace deal is agreed which ends the Second Sudanese Civil War, but Chad and Sudan accuse one another of backing and harbouring rebels, and the dispute leads to a four-year break in relations between 2006-2010.

2011

At midnight on the start of 9 July 2011, South Sudan officially becomes a new country, divided thanks to a popular vote from what remains of Sudan proper (which still possesses roughly two-thirds of the original state's territory). It is the climax of a process that has been made possible by the 2005 peace deal that ended decades of civil war. Sudan's President Omar al-Bashir is the first to recognise the new country. Its largely Christian capital is Juba, and it is bordered to the north by Sudan, to the east by Ethiopia, to the south by Kenya, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and to the west by the Central African Republic.

Leader of the coup against Omar al-Bashir in 2019 was former defence minister and army general, Awad ibn Auf, who stepped down just a day later in favour of a lieutenant general who was seen as being more of a moderate

2019

Protests about rising prices become violent, with at least thirty-eight people dying. On Thursday 11 April 2019, Omar al-Bashir is removed from office during a military coup. A three month state of emergency is declared and the constitution is suspended but, despite a curfew being imposed, protestors remain on the capital's streets, camping outside the army headquarters in Khartoum.

2019

Military general & defence minister. Led coup. Stepped down.

2019

One day after leading the coup, General Awad ibn Auf, the former defence minister names his replacement as Lieutenant-General Abdel Fattah Abdelrahman Burhan following claims that the general is too close to al-Bashir.

2019 - Present

Military general.

2021

Burhan removes and details the country's prime minister in October, citing what is in effect another coup as a form of correction for the transition between 2019's removal of Omar al-Bashir and a return to free elections. Burhan is supported by General Mohamed Hamdan Dagal (commonly known as 'Hemedti') and his paramilitary militia, the 'Rapid Support Forces' (RSF), an outgrowth of the former Janjaweed militias.

Those elections are tentatively scheduled for 2023, but the coup results in mass public protests. Heavy-handed policing of the protests does nothing to aid Burhan's cause, and he is forced to reinstate the prime minister.

2022

In December, with Burhan and Hemedti now rivals, they reluctantly agree to return Sudan to civilian rule following intense diplomatic pressure. They do not, however, agree over the timeline to accomplish the transition, or how to share power, or how to integrate Hemedti's forces into Sudan's armed forces.

2023

The simmering political tension between Burhan and Hemedti erupts into violence on 15 April 2023. Fighting between the two sides springs up all over the country. The concentration of violence in Khartoum forces various foreign embassies to begin evacuating staff. The USA does this militarily, while others such as France offer to take all western visitors, and the United Kingdom offers its non-embassy citizens a do-it-yourself policy.