This
Iron Age Celtic
tribe held sway over the northern Thames Estuary, from the area around
pre-Roman
London to the east coast of modern
England and
northwards into lower Suffolk. The Trinovantes (or Trinobates) were probably
divided from their Iceni
neighbours to the north by the heavily wooded country that was known to form
a border between later Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. To the west lay the hated but
powerful Catuvellauni, to
the far south-west were the
Atrebates, and to the south,
across the great estuary of the Thames, were the
Cantii. Like their neighbours
in the south-east, they were probably a
Belgic
tribe from the North Sea or Baltics, part of the third wave of Celtic settlers
in Britain. Their
style of burial certainly supports this supposition. (See the map of most of
Europe's tribes around the first centuries BC and AD to view the tribe's
location in relation to all other Celts.)
In the south-western corner of the Trinovantes tribal territory, the city of
London in its earliest form was founded as a settlement perhaps by circa
500 BC, and it was this small settlement that was probably used as the basis
for the later Roman city. Legendarily at least, its name seems to stem from
Llud Llaw Ereint, traditionally the founder of
Gwynedd and high king of Britain,
in the form of 'Lud Dun', or Llud's fort or settlement. Going back even
further in traditional terms, the city was first founded by Brutus, first
high king of Britain, and was originally named New Troy.
Edward Dawson concurs that the Trinovantes name spelled with a 'v' sound
should be accurate. In Latin the 'v' was originally pronounced as it
appeared, but it softened in time to a 'w'. Once that had occurred, Latin
speakers from Italy
would probably write 'Trinobantes', while Roman citizens of Celtic provinces
might continue using 'Trinovantes'. The name breaks down into 'tri-' ('three'),
plus 'novos' (cognate with the Latin 'novus', 'new', plus a suffix that is
unfamiliar. Note that the word Trinovantes is directly related to the name
of a tribe in the southern highlands of Scotland, the
Novantes, with just
the 'tri-' prefix removed. No connection between the two tribes is known,
but the similarity does suggest a similar origin or naming concept.
No written records exist to detail any but the last of the tribe's rulers,
whose names were recorded by the Romans. Pronunciation of the tribe's name
is straightforward enough, breaking down into four segments -
trin-o-van-teeze - and with a mild emphasis on the emboldened
letters. One thing to remember is that if a Roman recorded a name, a 'v' is
pronounced as a 'w', although this seems largely to be ignored with the
Trinovantes.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson
and Dave Hayward, from The Oxford History of England: Roman Britain,
Peter Salway, from Roman Britain: A New History, Guy de la Bédoyère,
from Towns of Roman Britain, J Wacher, from Place-Names of Roman
Britain, A L F Rivet and Colin Smith, from History of the Kings of
Britain, Geoffrey of Monmouth, from Atlas of British History,
G S P Freeman-Grenville (Rex Collins, London, 1979), and from External
Links:
Colchester's
Roman Circus, and
Community Landscape
Archaeology Survey Project, and
British History Online.)
55 BC
During the first of his expeditions to
Britain, Julius
Caesar regards the Trinovantes as perhaps the strongest tribe in the
region. Despite this strength, the Trinovantes may be one of only two tribes
to obey Caesar's command to send him tribute and hostages after his
departure.
Imanuentius'
successor, Mandubracius, is exiled from
Britain by High
King Cassivellaunus, king of the
Catuvellauni. He goes
to Julius Caesar in
Gaul
and wins support. When Caesar makes the second of his exploratory forays
into Britain, the Trinovantes reveal the location of the main Catuvellauni
stronghold, which is then besieged by the Romans. Mandubracius is reinstated
following the Roman
victories over Cassivellaunus, and the high king is ordered not to make war
against the Trinovantes again (Mandubracius is claimed as a son of High
King Lludd Llaw Ereint, but due to copying errors he is called Androgeus).
The tribal capital was Camulodunum from about 20 BC, which was
adapted by the Romans as a city and later as Colonia Claudia
Victricensis, a settlement for discharged soldiers
54 - c.30 BC
Mandubracius
Son. His daughter married the unnamed king of the
Catuvellauni.
c.30 - c.20 BC
?
Name unknown, and may not even have existed.
c.30 BC
The
next identifiable ruler after Mandubracius is Addedomaros, but nothing is
known of any connection between the two. Indeed, it is not even known for
sure whether they rule concomitantly. Some sources state that Addedomaros
begins to rule the tribe between about 20-15 BC, indicating the possibility
of at least one king whose name has been lost. Others place the start of
Addedomaros' reign at about 30 BC.
c.20 - c.10 BC
Addedomaros /
Addedumaros
Subservient to the
Catuvellauni? Reigned for
about 10 years.
c.20/15 BC
Almost as soon as he succeeds to the Trinovante throne, Addedomaros (or
Addedumaros, or even Addedmaros) moves the capital from Braughing (now in
Hertfordshire) at the eastern headwaters of the River Lea (the tribe's
westernmost border), relocating it at a new site named 'the fort of the
war god Camulos' - Camulodunum.
According to Edward Dawson, the name Addedomaros appears to mean 'one with
the ocean' (addo addere addidi additum: to add or join, plus 'maros', the
sea). This king's economic influence spreads far and wide. His coins are
later found by archaeologists across Northamptonshire with finds as far west
as Evenley and Flore in that area. With deposits of
Dobunnic coins in these areas
as well, coupled with the identification of early east-west trading routes,
there is strong evidence of intra-Catuvellauni/Dobunnic trade in
Britain.
c.15 - 10 BC
A
series of coins are issued by Tasciovanus of the
Catuvellauni with a mint
mark that shows they are produced in Camulodunum, the Trinovante capital.
Tasciovanus later claims to be the rightful heir of the kingship of the
Trinovantes, suggesting a possible family connection to Mandubracius.
Tasciovanus is soon forced to withdraw, perhaps by pressure from
Rome,
restoring the Trinovantes to full independence.
Curiously, this appears to be about the same time at which Dumnovellaunos
also seems to become king of the
Cantii. Does he conquer the
tribe himself or is he placed in command of it by his possible overlord,
Tasciovanus?
c.10 BC - AD 5
Dumnovellaunos
Son. Also king of the
Cantii (15 BC-AD 5). Claimed
as High King.
c.10 BC - AD 7
Dumnovellaunos
apparently travels to
Rome
where he pays tribute to Caesar Augustus (recorded in the Res Gestae),
showing that the Trinovantes and
Cantii seem to maintain links
with the Romans that had been established by Julius Caesar.
fl AD 5
Diras
Known from coin evidence only.
c.AD 5
Diras
is an obscure individual who is known to hold power north of the Thames
around this time. He could be a successor to Dumnovellaunos (whether
legitimate or a usurper), but scholars cannot even be sure whether he
is of the Trinovantes or the
Catuvellauni. In
2003-2006, a hoard of coins is uncovered by degrees in a field in Kent,
comprising mostly of coins minted by the
Cantii. One coin, buried along
with the rest in the first century AD, carries Diras' name.
Two sides of this coin of Diras' predecessor, Dumnovellaunos,
reveals the elaborate artwork that was usually contained on
these small but beautiful coins, often with the name of the king
himself stamped around the edge, many times this being the only
surviving record of their existence
c.5 - 9
The
Trinovantes appear to be defeated in war by the
Catuvellauni, probably
between AD 5-9. The most likely date is AD 9, immediately following the
decimation of three
Roman
legions in the Teutoberger Forest by the
Cherusci.
After this, the Catuvellauni prince, Cunobelinus, seems to rule the subject
Trinovantes as a sub-kingdom from their capital at Colchester until he
succeeds as king of the Catuvellauni. The Trinovantes do not regain their
independence.
The
succession appears to be uncertain for this period. Togodumnus, son of
Cunobelinus, rules the
Catuvellauni,
but not necessarily the Trinovantes. His brother, Adminius of the
Cantii, is expelled from
the country around AD 39 or 40, and is not known to return, but the basis
for the expulsion may relate to a power-grab by Togodumnus and another
brother, Caratacus.
43
The
Trinovantes are conquered by the invading
Romans
under Governor Aulus
Plautius and Emperor Claudius himself as their
Catuvellauni overlords
are defeated and pushed out of the east coast. Camulodunum (modern Colchester)
becomes the Roman capital until AD 61.
59 - 61
Once
Prasutagus of the Iceni dies,
the Romans
begin to ignore the terms of the Iceni's client-statehood, while the Trinovantes
may be bearing a grudge because their tribal lands have not been returned to them
following the defeat of the
Catuvellauni. Stirred up
by imperial heavy-handedness, Boudicca leads a powerful
Celtic
uprising involving the Iceni, the Trinovantes and other tribes. It results in
the loss to the Romans of lower eastern
Britain.
After sacking and burning Camulodunum, Londinium, and Verulamium (St Albans),
the Celts are confronted by a fresh Roman army under
Governor Gaius Suetonius
Paulinus and are defeated. Boudicca's fate is unknown, but it is presumed that
she commits suicide rather than allow herself to fall into Roman hands. The
Trinovantes are fully subdued and absorbed within Roman Britain.
c.100 - 130
In 2005, archaeologists discover the only known example in
Britain
of a stadium, or circus, used for chariot racing. It is typically hairpin-shaped,
and consists of a track running down both sides of a central barrier (spina).
Banks of seats run all the way round, except at one end where the starting
gates are located. Probably built in the first century, the outer walls are
massive. At 250 metres (820 feet) in length it is the largest known
Roman public building in the country. It remains in use until it is
demolished in the late fourth century.
The circus at Camulodunum is the only known example of its kind
in Roman Britain, but its existence is under threat in 2012 due
to a lack of funds for preservation and developers who want to
build on the land
2nd century
The name of the
Roman town is uncertain. A second century inscription refers to 'colonia
Victricensis which is at Camulodunum', making a clear distinction between the
Roman colony and the Iron Age fortress. It has been suggested that the
official name had initially been Colonia Claudia, and that the colony had
been renamed Colonia Victricensis during rebuilding after its destruction
by Boudicca's followers. Later the town seems to have become known simply
as Colonia.
c.170 - 175
Coastal raids by barbarians have developed into a serious problem.
Archaeological finds for this period show a layer of destruction along a
great deal of the North Sea and Atlantic coast of Europe, between Belgica
and southern
Gaul,
and in eastern
Britain, well inside the territory of the Trinovantes. The
Chauci
are prime suspects for the raids, and
Rome
responds with improved defensive measures over the following thirty years or
so. Fortifications are put in place at sites including the
Iceni civitas of Venta Icenorum
(modern Caistor-by-Norwich), the Trinovantes town of Caesaromagus (modern
Chelmsford), and the civitas of the
Canninefates,
Forum Hadriani (modern Voorburg). This is the start of the system that will
develop into the Saxon Shore in Britain.
268 - 282
The threat of
Saxon
raids along the east coast appears to become serious in this period. Major
improvements are made to the coastal defences in south-eastern
Britain
as a result. Two forts in the system, Bradwell-on-Sea and Walton Castle
(in Suffolk) are near Colchester and probably belong to the second half
of this period. Colchester lies less than sixteen kilometres (ten miles)
from the coast and, although protected to an extent by those two forts,
is still vulnerable to sea-borne raiders, especially via the mouth of
the River Colne. Three coin hoards from the Colchester area, all dating to
about 275, attest to the widespread feeling of insecurity at the time.
Steps are taken to improve the town's defences. Initially the town ditch is
substantially widened and a counterscarp bank is formed with the soil dug
from it. Before the end of the century sterner measures have to be taken.
The Balkerne Gate is closed when the town ditch is extended to cross in
front of it, and traffic is diverted, probably through Head Gate. The
smaller Duncan's Gate, in the north-east part of the town, may also be
closed off by continuing the town ditch across its front.
The town's built-up area is shrinking at the same time. The change is at
its most obvious in the extramural areas outside the Balkerne Gate and
North Gate, where practically all the suburban buildings are demolished
during the period 275-300, presumably as they occupy exposed positions.
Most inhumations are now closer to the walls than most of the earlier
cremations.
314
Three bishops of the
British Church participate in
the
Roman Church's Council of Arles: Eborius of York
(Brigantes territory),
Restitutus of London, and Adelphius of Lincoln
(Corieltavi territory) or
possibly Colchester (Trinovantes territory). Given that York and London are
leading positions in the material copied and expanded upon by Geoffrey of
Monmouth, it is possible that these three bishops are the most senior
members of the church in
Britain.
No other Roman-era sees are known for the country.
Following
the expulsion of
Roman
administration from
Britain,
the Trinovantes appear to
have retained their identity to some extent, although their former territory
was fractured. Their tribal name does not seem to have survived, but in the
few written records available this seems to have been typical of the south
of Britain. Most post-Roman states appear to revolve around former Roman
cities, and often bear their names except in the more lightly Romanised far
west.
A possible successor kingdom to the eastern section of the Trinovantes tribal
territory seems to have formed around the important sub-Roman town of Caer
Colun (Roman Camulodunum, modern Colchester - shown below in emboldened red
in order to highlight it where necessary: Caer Colun).
The town's walls had been erected in the first century, following Boudicca's
revolt, a very early date for a walled Roman town in Britain. Various gates
and external forts had been erected in the time since then. Following the boom
time of the second century, shrinkage had occurred during the difficult years
of the late third century and part of the town had been cleared for agriculture,
so it was a well-defended and self-reliant location. It apparently held out
against the
Saxon
tide until the mid-sixth century - quite an achievement on Britain's east
coast. Whether it also controlled Londinium is unknown, but the city appears
to have been largely abandoned from around AD 457, following the final defeat
of British forces in Kent.
The name Caer Colun probably originated as Colonia Castra, indicating its
status as a former Roman colony. In the past it has been traditional to
link the name to the River Colne, but which name came first is still the
subject of debate. Given the fact there there were multiple 'colonia' towns
(Cologne, for example), there may well have been a second Caer Colun in
Britain (or a variation, one which depended upon its location and the local
dialect). If, as seems less likely, Caer Colun originated in Camulodunum
then the route is more complicated. The Brythonic name would be Camulodun
(the -um suffix is Roman), meaning 'fort of [the deity] Camulos'. Over the
course of time the 'm' transitioned to a 'v', and 'dun' was replaced by the
Latin 'castra', forming a probable Roman-era intermediate name of Castra
Cavelo (perhaps pronounced Kastra Kavelo by local Britons). The
'castra' was soon replaced with the Brythonic 'caer', and this was replaced
by the Saxons with 'chester' (only at the end of the name instead of the
beginning), hence modern Colchester.
One odd thing about the name Camelodun is that the modifier precedes the
noun. This is the
Germanic,
and proto-Indo-European,
word order, and not the
Latin and
Celtic word
order where the noun comes first, before the modifiers. Why this is so is
unclear. Also, intriguingly, Camelodun is a perfect match for 'Camelot', and
yet this treats the 'm' to 'v' shift as not occurring. The only conclusion
that can be drawn here is that, if Camelot is named after Camelodun, then
it was called Camelot at a location in which the shift failed to occur, such
as Gaul. Even Irish Gaelic had
a similar shift - of 'm' to 'w' - around the same time, at the end of the
Roman era, so was there anywhere in the British Isles that refused to accept
this shift until after the name Camelot was formed?
A little way to the north of Londinium is Verulamium, which later writers
named Caer Mincip or Mincipit (modern St Albans is located alongside
the ruins of the Roman city - the text below shows Caer
Mincip in emboldened green). This appears to have formed a British
enclave which survived against the odds until around the start of the seventh
century, possibly allied with nearby
Cynwidion. The
name Caer Mincip was derived from the word for fort or citadel, 'caer', and
'mincip' from municipium, derived from the Latin verb 'munio', meaning to
fortify, defend, protect. Modern English has derivatives such as municipal,
municipality, etc. So while later Britons remembered Verulamium as Caer Mincip
in their writings, the sub-Roman Britons who actually inhabited it under
increasing threat of conquest by the invaders probably called it Caer
Minicipium, the 'defended fort'.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson,
from Roman Britain: A New History, Guy de la Bédoyère, from
Colchester Archaeology Report Nos 1, 3 & 4, and from External
Links:
Britannia, and
British History Online.)
400s
The drains around the forum in Verulamium
(Caer Mincip) have been well-maintained even
during the years of decline in the later fourth century, but in the fifth
century they become clogged. Either the forum has fallen out of use or the
manpower or will for such maintenance work has died out. Around the same
time (at the end of the 300s) the mid-second century theatre in the city,
which had been substantially enlarged around 300, is now in ruins, made
redundant by the collapse of paganism in
Christian Britain and the
abandonment of the temple precinct with which it had been associated.
Instead it is a rubbish dump.
With the south gate of Verulamium (just outside modern St
Albans) probably remaining in use until about AD 600, the
town was part of a working Romano-British settlement that
was set up to defend itself from increasing Saxon encroachment,
although it's unlikely that the Roman baths at nearby Welwyn
would have lasted quite so long (click on image to view full
sized)
With Constantine III now in serious difficulties in
Gaul, further
Saxon
raids convince the
Britons and
Armoricans to
rebel and expel
Roman
officials, thereby breaking ties with Rome that are never renewed. Roman
presence in Britain has been dwindling anyway for at least the previous
three decades, so the split probably produces little change, except that
British officials now occupy former imperial posts. Records from this point
become extremely sparse and British control on a national level appears to
break down for a time.
A small hoard of clipped silver coins from Caer
Colun provides evidence of this, and the local councils, the
civitates, have to take steps to provide for their own defence. The hoard
belongs to a rash of groups of clipped coins which appear in Britain in
this period. Apparently the clipping of coins has until now been controlled
by the imposition of severe penalties on offenders, but with the break from
Rome the practice becomes commonplace.
500s
By
AD 500, the British
of Caer Colun seem in some way to be subduing or
holding off the new East Saxon
settlers, as shown by the lack of Anglo-Saxon relics in the area from this
date. This surviving pocket of British power may last until the mid-500s.
Very little fighting seems to take place in the territory, suggesting some
kind of peaceful arrangement is reached, at least initially.
There are signs, however, that Caer Colun's population is declining and
traditional customs may be declining too. Two decapitated burials from
the grounds of East Hill House may belong to the period since, contrary
to normal practice, they are inside the walls. Signs of a city living in
an ever-shrinking world, perhaps?
Some Late
Roman
houses in Stockwell Street show signs of remaining occupied into this period,
whilst the find of an elaborate
Germanic
buckle could be evidence of laeti, mercenaries who help to defend the
town. Such a potential occupation by foreigners at a time in which the city
is still in British hands is entirely acceptable. The same situation can be
found in Caer
Gwinntguic, with Germanic laeti who are settled to defend the town
in the fourth or early fifth century becoming part of the later defensive
efforts.
c.540 - c.550
The Cantware appear to be the
invaders to lead the 'fight' against the
British at
Caer Colun, perhaps as part of a new wave of more
aggressive territorial expansion. The defenders finally capitulate around
this time, allowing a kingdom of the
East Seaxe to be forged. In
fact, it is quite possible that the kingdom of the invaders is pronounced
while they are still fighting the Britons of Caer Colun. By this stage it
is almost certain that a large swathe of the coastal area has already been
taken out of British control.
The artist's impression of the Roman city of Camulodunum
(Romano-British Caer Colun, modern Colchester) shows it in its
heyday, before some gates were sealed up but after its walls -
the earliest city walls in Britain - were erected in order to
safeguard it from any further Boudiccan-style revolts
The end for Caer Colun may not be a peaceful one, although there is no
knowing whether a surrender is accepted without further violence, The town's
Duncan Gate appears to have been subjected to violent action on two occasions
- both taking place after the gate had been sealed up around AD 300. The
first is no earlier than AD 367 but whether setting fire to the gates at
this time had been intended or is accidental is unknown.
The second burning of the gates is part of an assault that happens
'substantially later', although the archaeological evidence for it,
uncovered in 1927-29, cannot be reassessed. Brushwood is piled up against
the outer face of the wooden doors and is set alight, causing the doors to
collapse inwards. The heat is so intense that many gate stones turn red.
The debris from the fire is apparently not cleared away, implying that the
gate is never repaired. If the interpretation of the excavation is correct,
then the gate may provide proof of a violent end to the Romano-British
administration here.
c.575 - 600
Farther west than the isolated Caer Colun, the town of
Caer Mincip (Roman Verulamium, modern St Albans)
shows plenty of evidence for the survival of a
British enclave.
The town is located between the territory of the
Middel Seaxe (immediately
north and west of Londinium) and the Icknield Way. Its survival may be the
last gasp of Trinovantes independence, although it had actually been founded
as the capital of the
Catuvellauni. A late
Roman
building has been converted into a barn or granary by the application of
huge buttressed foundations. Corn dryers have been inserted inside the
building so that such agricultural work can take place within the safety
of the town walls. A wooden water pipe is later constructed across the
site and is maintained, quite possibly until the collapse of the enclave
at the end of the sixth century.
This
date of Caer Mincip's collapse is very close to that of
Cynwidion's collapse,
and that territory lies to the immediate north of Caer Mincip. It seems likely that,
in its final days, Caer Mincip is an outpost or appendage of Cynwidion, and perhaps
a final survivor of the postulated Caer Lundein territory before that. That it has
survived at all is probably due to the weakened state of all the southern
Saxon
kingdoms after their Mons Badonicus defeat around 496. Lundein (Londinium, modern
London) is taken by the East Seaxe.
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