Celtic Kingdoms of the British Isles

Votadini (Britons)

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It was the Romans who coined the name 'Gaul' to describe the Celtic tribes of what is now France and Belgium, quite possibly based on an original form of the word 'Celt' itself (see feature link). When it came to the Celts of Britain, the name of the islands itself was used: Prydein (Latinised as Prettania or Britannia).

Its collective people were Britons, although not all of them were Celts, let alone the same 'type' of Celts. Successive waves of immigration had left a vague mix of Bell Beaker folk, Urnfield proto-Celts, Hallstatt and La Tène waves, and Belgae, the latest arrivals. By the first century BC these latter people dominated the south and east of the isles.

The Votadini tribe remained obscure until the arrival of the Romans late in the first century AD. They occupied the eastern coastal section of modern southern Scotland and north-eastern England, from the Firth of Forth down as far as the border with the Brigantes, somewhere around the River Tyne.

To the north of the Votadini, across the Firth of Forth, were the Venicones, who perhaps acted as an occasional buffer against the wilder Caledonians who lay beyond them. To the west were the Damnonii and Selgovae (see the map of most of Europe's tribes around the first centuries BC and AD to view this tribe's location in relation to all other Celts).

The Votadini name (Ptolemy's Otadinoi) has an Indo-European origin in the word for 'stand'. This descended through Early Celtic *wo-tādo to become the British 'wotād-' (which was used as part of an ethnic name). The root sense is 'foundation, support'. However, within the ethnic name in which it survived in post-Roman Britain, 'Votādini' emerged as the masculine 'wotǭd', to which was added the Celtic/Germanic suffix '-on'. This was altered to '-in' and added to it was the Latin suffix '-i'.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson, from The Oxford History of England: Roman Britain, Peter Salway, from Scotland Before History, Stuart Piggott, from Scotland's Hidden History, Ian Armit, from Atlas of British History, G S P Freeman-Grenville (Rex Collins, London, 1979), from Etymological Glossary of Old Welsh, Alexander Falileyev, from An Iron Age Chariot Burial from Scotland, S Carter & F Hunter, Antiquity Vol 77 No 297 (2003), from The Borders: A History of the Borders from Earliest Times, Alistair Moffat, from Life of Agricola, Tacitus, from Geography, Ptolemy, from The Llyfr Aneirin and the Place-Names of Y Gododdin, Kelly Kilpatrick (Newsletter of the Scottish Place-Name, No 46, 2019), and from External Links: The Scottish Place-Name Society Brittonic Language in the Old North database, and Caledonians, Picts, and Romans (Education Scotland - dead link).)

c.1500 BC

The hill fort of Traprain (later known as Traprain Law, now Haddington in Lothian) is first placed in use by the local inhabitants (long before they exist as the Votadini). At this stage it is only a burial place, but within half a millennium it becomes occupied on a permanent basis, with ramparts and a defined hill fort defensive structure.

The volcanic hill of Traprain Law made the perfect place for a hill fort called Dunpelder, and provided either a tribal capital or a place of worship until the fifth century AD

c.1000 BC

A hill fort is first occupied around this time at Eildon Hill, close to Melrose in the Scottish Borders. Its ramparts are built and then rebuilt in three distinct phases, although it may not remain important after the fourth century AD.

After 400 BC the chieftains here live confidently, with unimpressive ramparts which have no less than five entrances and perimeters of over one-point-five kilometres.

The impression which is given is of a holy place rather than a fort, with the boundary providing a sense of separation from the outside world. That is not to say that a Votadini ruler with a priestly role does not live here, with his accompanying elite group. They would be joined by the people on specific festival or holy dates.

The gold and amber jewellery unearthed from the burial of the continental European 'Celtic princess' show that very high levels of skill were involved in their creation in the first millennium BC

c.750 BC

This is also the period in which the Iron Age begins to arrive in Britain, introduced alongside a fresh wave of Celtic settlers. The site of Caerau in the later territory of the Silures shows evidence of this, although the initial spread of the Celtic newcomers is probably confined to the south and south-east coast before it moves inland.

It is quite possible that with most of southern Britain eventually controlled by these Celts, the natives of the west and north - a blend of pre-Indo-European natives, Bell Beaker proto-Italics, and proto-Celtic Urnfield people - respond to the threat by building defences which contain the latest technological advances which are typical of those seen at Caerau.

The use of iron weapons would more quickly supplant the bronze ones as a matter of necessity, and pockets of earlier peoples would survive and persist much as later Romano-Britons do in the face of Anglo-Saxon advances, with the natives adopting elements of the newcomers' weapons and fighting techniques as a matter of survival (the Votadini could be an example of this)

The hill fort of Caerau (pronounced Caer-eye) now stands on the edge of a modern housing estate on Cardiff's outskirts and with a road cutting through part of the lower hill

Either way, Celtic language and tough iron swords across the country gradually replace native language and soft bronze swords over the course of the next quarter of a millennium.

5th century BC

The only known chariot burial in Britain outside the territory of the Parisi takes place during this century (see feature link). The location is a Bronze Age burial cairn which is surrounded by three standing stones, at Huly Hill near Newbridge (fourteen kilometres to the west of Edinburgh), and the date places it at least a century earlier than its East Yorkshire counterpart.

However, in this case the chariot is buried intact, a style of burial which much more closely echoes the La Tène types of continental Europe, and La Tène material is found by archaeologists at various sites across Votadini territory.

By the end of the first century BC and the start of the first century AD, British politics often came to the attention of Rome, and the borders of the tribal states of the south-east were pretty well known (click or tap on map to view full sized)

AD 80 - 82

The Roman Governor of Britain leads two invading columns into lowland Scotland, with (probably) the Twentieth Legion and Ninth Legion meeting up at Inveresk (near Edinburgh, the territory of the Votadini). The force sets up permanent garrisons in its wake. The following year the Roman campaign continues into the territory of the Selgovae and Novantae tribes and, in AD 82, the Damnonii are contained along the western coast.

c.100 - 105

The northern Brigantes apparently revolt, perhaps under the leadership of Argiragus, a possible candidate for high king (as is any British chieftain who refuses to surrender to the Romans).

Argiragus seems to be responsible for the burning of the auxiliary fort at Corstopitum, as well as others, as the British tribes of lowland Scotland stage a major uprising. By AD 100 the Romans give up the north, and fully establish their defences along the Tyne-Solway line.

The ruins of Corstopitum (now Corbridge), a legionary fort which was probably an important part of Bernaccia's defence network in the fifth and sixth centuries, and also for the Votadini tribe prior to that

140 - 162

The Romans move north to the Forth-Clyde line, roughly the southern Caledonian boundary, reoccupying lowland Scotland and beginning construction of the more basic Antonine Wall (curiously, this takes place immediately after another revolt by the Brigantes is put down).

Coins announcing a victory are issued in late 142 or early 143 to mark the event. Tribes like the Votadini come under direct Roman rule and forts are built (if they had not already been built during the initial period of occupation from AD 80).

One such fort is at Trimontium (Newstead), which receives some rebuilding in AD 90. It is located perhaps a kilometre or so from the foot of Traprain which itself remains occupied throughout the Roman period. This may be explained by the latter being a religious centre rather than a military one, with the Roman commander quite happy to encourage a nearby focal point for tax collection.

Hadrian's Wall stretched the width of northern Britain, an attempt to contain attacks from the north with allied tribes on its northern flank to help enforce that protection, a policy which only really started to fail in the fourth century AD

Although this phase of occupation is not nearly so well recorded as is the invasion of southern and eastern Britain a century before, one can imagine a similar policy being pursued of allowing local rulers to remain in place for those tribes which cooperate, and then finding an excuse to prevent their successors from assuming power.

Fortunately for the Votadini, the period of occupation is short and the tribe subsequently remains on friendly terms as an official buffer state. In response to a growing need for troops elsewhere, the Romans seem to abandon the northern, Antonine, wall around AD 162-163 (see feature link), although some outpost forts may remain in use until at least the 180s.

An excavated fort at Camelon, just two kilometres or so to the east of Falkirk, seems to confirm a withdrawal date at this time. Hadrian's Wall itself is certainly still garrisoned, as archaeology has proven.

148 - 184

One probable reason for the Roman withdrawal to the southern side of Hadrian's Wall has been Corvus of the Damnonii. He apparently announces the creation of a kingdom in AD 148, and raises a following of British patriots.

The Roman borders (in continental Europe, at least), called limes, were fortified with broad wooden towers in which soldiers stood guard to warn of potential infringements

He dies fighting the Romans in AD 184 but his kingdom remains outside direct imperial control, one of four traditionally-claimed kingdoms. The others are probably those of the Votadini and Selgovae Britons, and the Novantae Caledonians.

180 - 185

A serious attack of the northern peoples takes place upon the death of the Roman emperor in 180, either from north of Hadrian's Wall into the province itself (with the Damnonii being a likely candidate), or from beyond the Antonine Wall to attack and devastate Roman forts in lowland Scotland.

Either way, it seems probable that in 184-185 the Roman Governor, Ulpius Marcellus, campaigns with two legions into lowland Scotland and beyond the Forth-Clyde line into Caledonia.

c.305

Britannia's two provinces are subdivided into four by Roman reorganisations. These are named (by no later than 314) as Britannia Prima (with a capital at Glevum in former Dobunni territory), Britannia Secunda, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis.

The new provinces form part of the Diocese of the Britains. At the same time, Constantius personally leads a campaign into Caledonia to bring to battle the elusive tribes in the Scottish Highlands and ensure a period of renewed peace.

Costume illustration of a Romanised British man (left) and a Romanised British aristocrat, with each wearing leather Gladiator sandals, one pair with a thong fitting and the aristocrat with sandals with many straps (from Hope's Costume of the Ancients)

The Romanised Paternus Pasrut is, according to tradition, a fairly high ranking Romano-British official or a frontier chieftain of the Venicones who is placed in command of Votadini troops in the Clackmannanshire region of Caledonia, north of the Firth of Forth.

Perhaps this placement of Votadini troops forms the grounds for the later establishment of Votadini overlordship of the Manau Gododdin (the territory of the Venicones) following the removal of Roman authority.

Interestingly, the Goddodin poem has a place name of Gwanannon on the border of Guotodin (see Kilpatrick's work in the sources, above). There is the possibility that the 'gw-' at the beginning of this name had in fact been a 'w-' which had shifted thanks to language changes from an original 'm-'. This would give Manannon as the original name - a very good option for the origin of 'Clackmannan'.

The relationship between the Votadini and the Venicones is an intriguing one. The Votadini are clearly foederati by the time the Romans invade Fife to crush the Pictish navy (the seagoing Venicones). The next mention of Venicones is for AD 305, with them seemingly in charge (at least of a unit of Votadini troops).

The former site of the hill fort of Tillicoultry is one candidate for the Venicones capital, although the Roman presence this far north was so transitory (relatively speaking) that firm detail about almost anything in Scotland is hard to come by

But then the situation swaps around, with the Venicones soon under Guotodin rule. How this happens is unknown but intermarriage is the probable answer. Are the Venicones under Guotodin rule when Cunedda is apparently sent south to attack the Irish in Venedotia?

Or do the Guotodin assume (or inherit) overlordship after Cunedda's departure? The fact of overlordship implies that the Guotodin are involved in the early Roman invasion of Fife, perhaps supplying cavalry support.

?

Eponymous founder of Din Eidyn, otherwise unknown.

4th century

With the fading of Roman central administration in Britain, it seems that regional Roman Governors, or dux, are set up to manage the protection of the island. The province of Britannia Secunda in the north is later recorded as being placed under the authority of dux Brittanorum, Coel Hen at Ebrauc.

The third century Multangular Tower in York (Ebrauc) lies at the western corner of the legionary fortress, which was probably the military HQ of fifth century 'Northern Britain'. The tower's remains are now part of York's Museum Gardens

It is possibly this arrangement which finally cuts the links between the southern Votadini and those to the north of Hadrian's Wall. The southern region re-emerges as part of the kingdom of Bernaccia in the early fifth century whilst the northern section forms its own directly-descended tribal kingdom named Guotodin.