Far East Kingdoms

Modern Australia (Australasia) (Oceania)
AD 1901 - Present Day
Incorporating Heads of State (1901-2025)

All Modern States Early Cultures Africa Americas British Isles Europe Far East Near East Oceania Ancient Mesopotamia Native Americans Special Indices

Considered in some quarters to be a watery continent in its own right, Oceania starts where South-East Asia ends, to the south-east of Indonesia and East Timor. Its territory is somewhat debatable, but generally consists of the waters of the Pacific Ocean dotted with some two thousand islands, some of which are independent states and others either parts of countries or colonies.

Australia, the smallest continent, is Oceania's largest land mass. Together with New Zealand, Tasmania, and some minor islands, Australia constitutes Australasia, Oceania's south-westernmost portion. Australia lies between the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean, to the south-east of Indonesia and East Timor, to the south of Papua New Guinea, to the south-west of the Solomon Islands, to the west of New Caledonia and New Zealand, and about seven thousand kilometres to the north of Antarctica.

The first humans to reach Australia from South-East Asia did so at some point around (or before) 60,000 BC (see feature link) during the Palaeolithic Oceania period. That early Australian population, if it left any related communities in South-East Asia, quickly lost connection with them, and they were replaced outside of Australia by populations of later South Asians and East Asians.

The beginnings of what might be termed 'Colonial Australia' began in 1642, when Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand's South Island. He also charted some of its western coast. Dutch maps labelled the new discovery Nieuw Zeeland (New Zealand) after the Dutch province of Zeeland. In doing so he effectively ended what had been the Neolithic Oceania period. Hanoverian British navigator and explorer Captain James Cook was next to arrive, in 1769-1770.

British settlement in Australia began with the transportation of convicts who otherwise would have been hanged for their crimes. Most convicts were transported to the American colonies until the revolutionary war there made that impossible. The First Fleet arrived in 1788, but authorities thought the location unsuitable and chose instead Sydney Cove (now Circular Quay) for their colony. The transportation system was abolished in 1868.

Please note that the History Files does not regularly monitor changes in modern heads of state or their representatives. Get in touch here if this section requires updating.

(Information by John De Cleene and the John De Cleene Archive, with additional information from Asia in the Modern World, Claude A Buss (Macmillan Publishing Company, 1964), from The Fatal Shore, Robert Hughes (Vintage, 1987), from Hammond's Historical Atlas (C S Hammond & Co, 1963), from Historical Atlas of the World, R R Palmer (Ed, Rand McNally & Company, 1963), from The Horizon History of the British Empire, Steven W Sears (Ed, American Heritage Publishing Co, 1973), from Kingdoms of Europe, Gene Gurney (Crown Publishers, 1982), from Millennium In Maps: Exploration (National Geographic supplement, National Geographic Society, 1998), from Washington Post (4 September 1999, 16 September 1999, 20 September 1999, 20 October 1999, and 31 October 1999), and from External Links: Australia (Rulers.org), and Behind the Scenes: the Politics of Planning Adelaide, Michael Llewellyn-Smith (University of Adelaide Press, 2012, and available via JSTOR), and Bligh, William (1754-1817) (Australian Dictionary of Biography), and British Convicts to Australia, Jessica Brain (Historic UK), and Convict Cargo (National Museum of Australia), and Convict Transportation Peaks (National Museum of Australia), and Creation of a State (History of Queensland, Queensland Government), and Early humans Lived in PNG highlands 50,000 years ago (Reuters), and Historical Moments That Shaped Australia (Culture Trip), and History (Western Australia Museum Welcome Walls), and HMS Bounty (Royal Navy Museum, dead site, but page available via the Way Back Machine), and Northern Territory, Jack Cross (SA History Hub, History Trust of South Australia), and Victoria's early history, 1803-1851 (State Library of Victoria), and Whitlam Dismissal (National Museum of Australia), and BBC News (5 April 2003), and CNN News (9 April 2003), and MSNBC (9 April 2003), and Old Treasury Building, and Australian Bushfires (World Wildlife Foundation), and Australian Fires Fueled Unprecedented Blooms (Nasa Earth Observatory), and Australia's epic wildfires (Nature), and Lives will be lost to bushfires (The Guardian), and Flooded Queensland towns (The Guardian), and Deportation to Nauru (The Guardian).)

1901

A new constitution is put into effect in 'Colonial Australia' on 1 January 1901. It unites the British colonies of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, and Western Australia, plus the Northern Territory, as the collective states of the 'Commonwealth of Australia'. Eight months later, the first national flag is hoisted above the parliament of this new Australia.

Now a self-governing independent commonwealth, Australia has a British-style parliamentary government, with the prime minister as the head of that government. The head of state remains the British monarch, who is represented in Australia by a governor-general.

On 1 January 1901 the six separate colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia, plus the Northern Territory became a self-governing independent commonwealth

1901 - 1903

First British governor-general of Australia. Earl Hopetown.

1902

Prior to the enactment of the Australian federation, only women in the colonies of South Australia and Western Australia had possessed the right to vote. The women's suffrage movement now leads parliament to pass the 'Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902', which enables Australian women who are twenty-one years of age or older to vote in national elections and to stand for the Australian parliament. This is one of the earliest gender equality movements in Australia.

1903 - 1904

Governor-general. Baron Tennsyson.

1904 - 1908

Governor-general. Baron Northcote.

1906

Having taken an interest in the island in the 1880s, partially to keep out increasing German interest, the United Kingdom now turns over British New Guinea to Australian control. From this point, British New Guinea becomes the 'Territory of Papua'.

Papuans in this photo wear traditional dress in the highlands of Papua New Guinea on the island's independence day which celebrates the attainment of self-government in 1975

1908 - 1911

Governor-general. Earl of Dudley.

1910 - 1970

An official Australian assimilation policy brings about the forced removal of up to a third of native Australian children from their parents. Those children are forbidden to speak their native language and often are adopted into white families. Not until 2008 does the Australian government issue an apology for these activities.

1911 - 1914

Governor-general. Baron Denman.

1914

Having jointly guaranteed in 1839 to support the neutrality of Belgium, when the country is invaded by Germany, Britain, France, and Russia are forced to declare war against Germany and Austria-Hungary at midnight on 4 August. The First World War (variously called World War I, or the Great War), has begun.

All of Britain's overseas territories and colonies mobilise for war, including Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. Despite its independence, Australia still considers itself to be a loyal member of the British empire, in which it is duty-bound to participate.

Kaiser Wilhelm II of Prussia and the German empire inspects his troops on the eve of war in 1914, a war which none of the tributary German principalities had any chance of escaping

Japan joins Britain against Germany, as does China, both keen on reducing the German presence in their region. Japanese and British troops take Tsingtao Fortress which houses the German East Asia Squadron's headquarters.

German-leased territories in China's Shandong Province are also taken, as are the Marianas, Caroline Islands, and Marshall Islands in the Pacific, all of which are part of 'German New Guinea'. China supplies nearly one hundred and fifty thousand labourers to the Western Front.

1914 - 1920

Governor-general.

1914 - 1918

Australia occupies Nauru during the First World War, a possession of the German colony of German New Guinea. In November, Australia also occupies Kaiser Wilhelmsland (German New Guinea). In 1915, the allies, especially including the Australians, unsuccessfully assault Gallipoli in north-eastern Ottoman empire-controlled Anatolia. The Australians suffer huge losses, and the campaign is generally a disaster.

Britain, France, and Italy agree on 3 November, 1918 to a ceasefire with Austria-Hungary. The German emperor abdicates on 8 November. A general armistice effectively ends the war on 11 November.

Nauru today is an island republic, a raised fossilised coral atoll, lying four thousand kilometres to the north-east of Sydney, with a total land area of twenty-one square kilometres and a population of thirteen thousand

1920

Nauru becomes a League of Nations mandate which is nominally and jointly administered by Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. In practice it falls under Australian administration. Australian-occupied Kaiser Wilhelmsland also becomes a League of Nations mandate which falls under Australian administration.

1920 - 1925

Governor-general. Baron Forster of Lepe.

1925 - 1931

Governor-general. Baron Stonehaven.

1931 - 1936

Governor-general.

1936 - 1945

Governor-general. Baron Gowrie.

1939 - 1945

The Nazi German invasion of Poland on 1 September is the trigger for the Second World War. With both France and Britain, under Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, pledged to support Poland, both countries have no option but to declare war on 3 September.

Nazi-led German troops are shown here progressing in good order through a Polish town on the first day of the invasion, 1 September 1939

Australia joins Britain's efforts as soon as the war begins. At the end of 1941 and the beginning of 1942, Dutch and Australian forces occupy the Portuguese colony of East Timor. They are driven out by the Japanese, who occupy East Timor from 1942 to 1945. In January 1942, Japan also occupies New Guinea and part of Papua until 1944.

With the war's end in 1945, the two territories of Papua and New Guinea are united under Australian administration into the 'Territory of Papua and New Guinea'. On 1 November 1945, eight days after the United Nations is formed, Australia joins.

1945 - 1947

Governor-general. Duke of Gloucester. Died in office.

1947

Governor-general (Jan-Mar only).

1947 - 1953

Governor-general.

1950 - 1953

North Korea's forces attack South Korea on 25 June 1950. A multinational force made up primarily of troops from the USA, and Britain and the Commonwealth nations (including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and India), goes in to support the south. The Korean War lasts until a ceasefire is agreed in July 1953.

The 38th parallel (latitude 38° N) crosses the border between North Korea and South Korea towards the western end of the present demilitarised zone (DMZ), but it is the post-Korean War DMZ which forms the actual border between the two states

1953 - 1960

Governor-general.

1960 - 1961

Governor-general. Viscount Dunrossil.

1961

Acting governor-general (Feb-Aug only).

1961 - 1965

Governor-general. Viscount De L'Isle.

1965 - 1969

Governor-general. Baron Casey of Berwick.

1968

On 31 January, the United Nations 'Trust Territory' of Nauru, which has nominally been under the administration of Australia, New Zealand, and Britain, but in practice under Australian administration, now becomes an independent republic.

1969 - 1974

Governor-general.

1971 - 1975

The territory of Papua and New Guinea is renamed in 1971 as the 'Territory of Papua New Guinea'. On 1 September 1975, just before independence, the island of Bougainville secedes as the 'Republic of the North Solomons', which is never officially recognised. On 16 September 1975, the territory of Papua New Guinea becomes independent as the 'Independent State of Papua New Guinea'.

The archaeological and cultural interpretation of Australian earth rings such as that at Sunbury is now woven together in first-of-its-kind research which was carried out by the Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung people themselves

1972 - 1974

Australia's Labor prime minister, Gough Whitlam (in office between 1972-1975), introduces notable and popular progressive measures, including national health care and the withdrawal of Australia from the Vietnam War in South Vietnam, in which Australia has participated since 1962.

Other measures affect education, native Australians, multiculturalism, women's rights, international relations, defence, environment, economy, and the arts. However, the reforms are highly controversial, and opposition control of the senate blocks many proposals.

1974 - 1977

Governor-general. Dismissed Prime Minister Whitlam.

1974 - 1975

The 1974 elections have reduced the Labor majority in the house of representatives, The Liberal Party is now able to mount more attacks on the government in resistance against its reforms. In June 1975 a scandal erupts over treasurer Jim Cairns' relationship with his personal secretary and his controversial handling of a Pakistani loan.

Former president, and then prime minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was executed in an alleged murder case after a controversial trial in the Zia era, which the Pakistan People's Party often dubs a 'judicial murder'

Malcolm Fraser, the new Liberal Party leader, now pounces, using his senate majority to block the budget. When Whitlam proposes an election of only half the senate, a constitutional crisis arises. On 11 November, Remembrance Day, Sir John Kerr dismisses Whitlam and appoints Fraser as Whitlam's successor. Whitlam becomes the only Australian prime minister ever to be dismissed by the head of state.

Also in 1975, the Whitlam government introduces Medibank ('Medicare' from 1984). This is a commonwealth-funded universal healthcare scheme which covers bulk-billing GPs, hospital treatments, and subsidised prescription medication for all Australian citizens and permanent residents. The system is regarded as being one of the best in the world.

1977 - 1982

Governor-general.

1980

A secessionist provisional government of Vemerana is proclaimed on the island of Espiritu Santo on 1 June, which falls within the territory of Vanuatu. The revolt spreads on 28 June to reach Aoba and Malakula islands but it collapses there on 4 July.

As part of the royal tour of Australia and the South Pacific in October 1982, Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip visited Nauru, meeting the president, Hammer DeRoburt

British and French troops establish control over the rebel capital at Luganville on 24 July, but the rebels flee inland. The British and French troops leave Espiritu Santo on 18 August, to be replaced by troops from Australia and Papua New Guinea, along with Vanuatu police. The revolt ends on 31 August.

1982 - 1989

Governor-general.

1989 - 1996

Governor-general.

1996

On 28 April 1996 a lone gunman kills thirty-five people and injures twenty-three more at the Port Arthur Historic Site in Tasmania. It is the deadliest shooting rampage in Australian history. In response, the government introduces tight gun control laws which are amongst the strictest in the world.

1996 - 2001

Governor-general.

1999 - 2002

In anticipation of a referendum on independence in East Timor, the Indonesian military supplies and supports pro-Indonesian militia groups which terrorise the East Timorese and depopulate the capital of Dili.

United Nations Interfet forces escort Bishop Carlos Belo in 1999 during the mission to support East Timor and stave of the risk of further brutal violence

After East Timor does indeed vote in support of independence, considerable international pressure causes Indonesia to permit a United Nations peacekeeping force to enter the new state. Australia heads the force, which arrives in East Timor on 20 September 1999.

Other participants in the peacekeeping force include Brazil, Britain, Canada, Finland, France, Italy, New Zealand, the Philippines, Portugal, Singapore, South Korea, Sweden, Thailand, and the USA.

The 'People's Consultative Assembly' is the expanded version of the Indonesian parliament. It votes on 19 October 1999 to accept East Timor's independence. On the next day, the 1975 Indonesian annexation of East Timor is rescinded.

The United Nations takes over the provisional government of East Timor. The last Indonesian troops withdraw on 31 October 1999. United Nations administration is ended on 20 May 2002, with East Timor now being fully independent.

Indigenous Australians maintained an oral tradition which could recall the later stages of post-ice age sea-level rise, with those sea levels not fully balancing out until about 5000 BC

2001 - 2003

Governor-general. Resigned following scandal.

2003

An Anglo-American-led Second Gulf War leads to the collapse of Saddam Hussein's regime after just twenty-one days of fighting (Australia provides troops for the coalition). Hussein is eventually captured, after having been located in an underground bunker (more of a deep fox hole). He is tried by an Iraqi court, and at the very end of 2006 sentenced to death by hanging for his crimes.

On 15 May 2003, Peter Hollingworth temporarily resigns, pending the outcome of an investigation into rape allegations against him. Sir Guy Green, the queen's representative in the state of Tasmania, is appointed to act in Hollingworth's place. Although the charges are dismissed, Hollingworth formally resigns on 28 May, and Green replaces him.

2003

Stand-in governor-general (May-Aug).

2003 - 2008

Governor-general.

2008 - 2014

First female governor-general.

2010

Julia Gillard, Australia's twenty-seventh prime minister and the country's first female prime minister, is sworn into office on 24 June 2010 by Quentin Bryce, Australia's first female governor-general. Gillard had formerly been the country's deputy prime minister.

Queen Elizabeth is pictured here at the Commonwealth summit of 2011 with Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina of Bangladesh on the left, and on the right Australia's Prime Minister Julia Gillard, and Trinidad and Tobago's Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar

2011

At a summit in Perth in Australia, the heads of the sixteen Commonwealth countries of which Queen Elizabeth II is head of state unanimously approve changes to the royal succession. Sons and daughters of any future monarch of the United Kingdom will have equal right to the throne, bringing to an end the use of three hundred year-old succession laws.

Perhaps equally momentous, the ban on the monarch being married to a Roman Catholic is also lifted. The succession changes require a raft of historic legislation to be amended, including the 1701 Act of Settlement, the 1689 Bill of Rights, and the Royal Marriages Act 1772.

The change to the Royal Marriages Act will end a position in which every descendant of George II is legally required to seek the consent of the monarch before marrying. In future, the requirement is expected to be limited to a small number of the sovereign's close relatives (essentially meaning only those who are in direct line to succeed to the throne).

Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip as they were being ferried across to the royal barge, Spirit of Chartwell, for the river pageant as part of the queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations

2014 - 2019

Governor-general.

2019 - 2024

Governor-general. Former senior Australian army officer.

2019 - 2023

Severe Australian bushfires which are partially a product of extreme climate change burn up to nineteen million hectares, mostly forest or bushland. They also kill or displace three billion animals. cost the lives of thirty-three people, and destroy 3,094 homes.

Massive smoke plumes reach record heights. Marine ecosystems are damaged thousands of kilometres away. Bushfires have always been a feature of the Australian environment, but these fires have been exceptionally destructive. The smoke increases atmospheric temperatures and increases the size of the hole in the ozone layer.

Such bushfires can be expected to increase even more in size, intensity, and destructiveness due to human-induced planetary warming. Devastating fires have continued through 2023 and, over the next decade, are predicted to cause the deaths of more than 2,400 Australians.

Burning bushland in Tomerong in the Australian state of New South Wales, on Saturday 4 January 2020

2024 - On

Female governor-general. Canberra native.

2025

Heavy rainfall lashes the north Queensland coast for days before spreading west to cut off towns near the Gulf of Carpentaria. At least six communities are isolated by flood waters after north-western areas between Georgetown and Normanton receive more than three hundred millimetres of rainfall overnight.

In the same year it emerges that Nauru has struck a secret deal with Australia to accept some of its undesirable asylum seekers. Known as the NZYQ cohort, these people have existing criminal records but cannot be returned to their home countries, and have little prospect of being accepted anywhere else. The entire affair is highly contentious in Australia.