The Americas

Modern Brazil
AD 1889 - Present Day
Incorporating Heads of State (1889-2026), Old Republic (1889-1937), New State (1937-1945), New Republic (1945-1964), & Third Republic (1985-On)

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Located in South America, the modern republic of Brazil directly inherits the rights and territories of the colonial 'Terra do Brasil'. It borders Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana to the north, Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia to the west, and Paraguay, Argentina, and Uruguay to the south.

Its capital is the purpose-built city of Brasilia, in the southern-centre of the country. The Brazilian 'Old Republic' was initiated on 15 November 1889 with the overthrow of Emperor Peter II. A new federal-based government was created, and a constitution was inaugurated in 1891.

Pedro Alvares Cabral had officially discovered Brazil in 1500, and the vast territory became undisputed Portuguese territory thanks to the Treaty of Tordesillas of 7 June 1494. The country's native population was broad and diverse, with the Karitiana people at least being linked via DNA with the ancient Afontova Gora people of Central Asia.

Expansion into those vast unknown lands was vigorously pursued under John III, with the colony being divided into twelve captaincies which were charged with protecting and exploiting their commands. The discovery and exploitation of gold and diamond mines made the Portuguese crown one of the richest in the world.

When Peter II was overthrown, ending the 'Empire of Brazil', he took his family to France to begin his exile. He died soon afterwards and was given a state funeral by the French government. In Brazil the event was censored by the 'Old Republic' which had been declared which the imperial house was removed from the country's governance. Military governance lasted until 1894.

Peter II and successive claimants of the House of Braganza to the throne are shown below with a shaded background. Heirs who did not succeed in becoming the head of the Braganzas are shown in red text, while rivals or pretenders to the throne are shown with a plum backing.

Please note that the History Files does not regularly monitor changes in modern heads of state or their representatives. Get in touch here if this section requires updating.

Principal author(s): Page created: Page last updated:

(Information by Peter Kessler and the John De Cleene Archive, with additional information from Colonial Latin America, Mark A Burkholder & Lyman L Johnson (Tenth Edition, Oxford University Press, 2018), from Historical Atlas of the World, R R Palmer (Ed, Chicago, 1963), from Times Atlas of World History (Maplewood, New Jersey, 1979), from Hammond's Historical Atlas (C S Hammond & Co, 1963), from Historical Evolution of Hispanic America, J Fredrick Rippy (Second Ed, FS Crofts and Company, 1942), from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus, Charles C Mann (Knopf, 2005), from All Things Considered (US National Public Radio, first broadcast on 10 October 1992), from Brazil, Rollie E Poppino (Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 1973), from Washington Post (18 February 1992, 30 September 1992, 3 October 1992, 13 September 1996, 16 September 1999, 20 September 1999, & 11 May 2000), from Tech-savvy tribal chief fights to save Brazilian Amazon (Washington Post, 28 March 2013), from Ouster of Brazil leader looms (Washington Post, 18 April 2016), from Rousseff ousted as a president (Washington Post, 1 September 2016), and from External Links: United Nations Population Division, and BBC Country Profiles, and Barcelona Centre for International Affairs (CIDOB), and Brazil (Flags of the World), and Brazil (Rulers.org), and Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Native Americans (US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health), and A Brief History of Brazil (New York Times), and Casa Imperial do Brasil, and Brazil (Freedom House), and Mercosur deal with Latin American countries (The Guardian).)

1889 - 1891

Military president of provisional government.

1889 - 1891

Ex-emperor of Brazil. Died 5 December in Paris.

1890?

Prominent Bolivian landowner and political figure, Colonel Manuel Pando, stages a coup against President Aniceto Arce. The coup fails so Pando flees to Acre, a Bolivian territory which is sparsely settled and with no official presence. He discovers encroachment by Brazilian settlers which he reports to the Bolivian government.

Exiled from Brazil for the last years of his life, Emperor Peter II found a form of immortality as the subject of some late Victorian photography (this example being by Joaquim Insley Pacheco (1830-1912))

1891

Having been living in exile in France, Emperor Peter II now dies in Paris just two years after losing his throne and only being in his sixties.

As his eldest surviving child, upon his death Princess Isabel (responsible for ending slavery in Brazil in 1888) becomes the head of the House of Braganza and the de jure empress of Brazil which is now enjoying its 'Old Republic' period.

1891

President (Feb-Nov only). Forced to resign.

1891 - 1894

Acting president.

1891 - 1921

Dau of Peter II. Died 14 Nov in France.

1894 - 1898

President. Acting President Manuel Vitorino (1896-1897).

1898

Bolivia gains access to Acre, alarming the Brazilian settlers there. They rebel, with the support of authorities of Brazil's state of Amazonas. The Bolivians abandon the territory, while Amazonas sends in adventurers to secure the territory under the command of the Spaniard, Don Luís Galvez Rodrigues de Arias.

The 'Independent State of Acre' was declared by Brazilian settlers who encroached into Bolivia's territory but who then managed to make it impossible for Brazil to fail to support them

1898 - 1902

President.

1899

The 'Independent State of Acre' is declared on 14 July 1899. It is more informally known as the 'Republic of Acre'. Brazil does not approve these activities, recognising Acre as Bolivian territory.

1900

A Brazilian force suppresses the republic of Acre on 15 March 1900 and, on 25 April, the territory is reincorporated back into Bolivia following the arrival of a Bolivian force. The Bolivians again withdraw after encountering the Brazilian inhabitants who again receive assistance from Amazonas.

This Brazilian state sends an 'Expedition of the Poets' under command of the journalist, Orlando Correa Lopez. The expedition proclaims the 'Second Republic of Acre' in November 1900. Bolivia suppresses this on 24 December 1900.

1902 - 1906

President.

1902 - 1903

Amazonas sends a third expedition, this time led by a Brazilian soldier by the name of José Plácido de Castro. This arrives on 6 August 1902, after which Castro establishes control over much of the area. The 'Independent State of Acre' is considered to be re-established on 7 August 1902. The rebels complete their takeover of Acre on 24 January 1903.

During the rubber boom era, the then-Bolivian territory of Acre was much desired both by Brazil and Bolivia, with the latter ceding it to the former in return for a large sum of money and the concession of the construction of a new railway which would connect Brazil with Bolivia

This time the occupiers have the support of the Brazilian government and they officially proclaim their state's existence on 27 January 1903. Brazil occupies part of Acre, creating the territory of North Acre.

Bolivia's Colonel Pando send troops of his own into Acre, but conflict between Brazil and Bolivia is avoided through a preliminary peace agreement on 21 March 1903. This finally concedes the territory to Brazil.

Brazil fully occupies Acre on 13 May 1903. The peace agreement between it and Bolivia is ratified by the Treaty of Petrópolis on 17 November 1903, which grants Acre to Brazil in exchange for territories in Mato Grosso.

1904

Peru's border with Brazil is settled with the signing of the Treaty of Velarde-Rio Branco on 12 June. This sets that border along the rivers of Yaravi and Yaverija.

In December of the same year the liberals take power in Paraguay following an Argentine-backed invasion. This removes from power the Brazilian-supported 'Colorado Party' and diminishes Brazilian influence on the country.

Bernardino Caballero, president and then later the military power behind the Paraguayan presidential 'throne', saw his domination ended in 1904 (he died on 26 February 1912)

1906 - 1909

President. Died in office.

1908

Prince Pedro de Alcantara, heir to the imperial title, renounces his claim so that he can marry the member of a Bohemian noble house. The claim falls first to his brother, who predeceases Isabel, and then to his nephew. They form the legitimate, or recognised, Vassouras branch.

1909 - 1910

President.

1910 - 1914

President. Conservative.

1914 - 1918

President. Conservative.

1917 - 1918

Brazil declares for the allies in October 1917 as part of the First World War against Germany and the Austro-Hungarian empire. As with the rest of the South American countries, the declaration makes little material difference to the war or its outcome.

With the various peoples who made up its ethnically-diverse population pulling apart from it in 1918, Vienna was left with a rump state which greatly reduced its power and significance in post-Austro-Hungarian empire Europe

1918 - 1919

President. Died in office.

1919 - 1922

President.

1920

Brother. Served British Army, WWI. Died 26.03.1920.

1921 - 1981

Son. Died 5 July. Vassouras branch of the royal family.

1922

The sentence of exile which had been imposed on the royal family in 1889 is now lifted. However, the family remains in France throughout the Second World War, only repatriating itself afterwards.

1922 - 1926

President.

1926 - 1930

President. Removed through a coup.

1930

Elected president but prevented from taking up office.

1930

Julio Prestes de Albuquerque is elected president under deeply controversial circumstances, so a coup by the military prevents him from taking office. A triumvirate is formed which holds power for the remainder of the year.

Elected president in 1930, Julio Prestes de Albuquerque is seen here at an unknown official function which is unlikely to be related to his presidential term of office - he was prevented from taking up his position by a military coup

1930

Army general, 24 Nov-3 Dec. Triumvirate member.

1930

Army general and co-ruler. Triumvirate member.

1930

Navy admiral and co-ruler. Triumvirate member.

1930

Getúlio Vargas takes full power and controls the country for fifteen years, first under a provisional government which has fascist support (1930-1934), then he attempts a constitutional format which sees the fascists disbanded (1934-1937), before finally opting for a full-blown dictatorship known as the 'New State' (1937-1945).

1930 - 1945

Dictator. Committed suicide in 1954.

1940

Son of Isabel I. Died 1940.

1940

Upon the death of Prince Pedro de Alcantara, his own son proclaims his right to the inheritance of the royal title. According to Isabel before her death, any claim by Pedro's descendants is to be dismissed following his renunciation. Nevertheless the rival Petropilis claim receives some backing, and these rival claimants are shown with a green backing.

1940 - 2007

Son of Pedro de Alcantara. Rival Petropolis claimant.

1942 - 1945

Following the declaration of the United Nations, Brazil joins the Second World War as an ally of the USA and Great Britain on 22 August 1942, against Japan, Germany and Italy. However, the dictatorship of Getúlio Vargas is brought to an end in 1945 and the process of a return to democracy is instigated.

Nazi-led German troops are shown here progressing in good order through a Polish town on the first day of the invasion, 1 September 1939

1945 - 1951

Military president for an extended single term.

1946

Elections now take place in the country. The first president of the 'New Republic' enters office for a single term of office which ends in 1951. Then Vargas manages to get himself elected, but commits suicide in 1954 rather than submit to calls for his resignation, having been linked to the assassination of a political rival.

1951 - 1954

President. Forced to resign. Committed suicide.

1954 - 1956

President. Took a leave of absence from 1955.

1955

Acting president (9-11 Nov only).

1955 - 1956

Acting president (11-Nov-1956).

1956 - 1961

President. Social Democrat.

1961

President (Jan-Aug only). Labour. Resigned.

1961

Acting president (Aug-Sep only).

1961 - 1964

President (Sep 1961-1 Apr 1964).

1964

President (1-8 Apr only).

1964

The left-wing President Joao Goulart is ousted in a coup which commences two decades of military rule. The new regime stifles freedom of speech and tortures opponents, but it also pursues economic development.

Having been planned as part of a vision of grand and glorious progress, the new city of Brasilia was planned and developed in the middle of virgin jungle in 1956, and this became Brazil's capital city in 1960

1964 - 1967

Army general. Killed.

1967 - 1969

Army general.

1969

Between 31 August and 30 October 1969 the country is governed by a military junta which consists of General Aurelio Lyra Tavares, Admiral Augusto Hamann Redemaker Grünewald, and General of the Air Force Marcio de Souza Mello.

1969 - 1974

Army general.

1974 - 1979

Army general.

1979 - 1985

Army general.

1981 - Present

Son of Pedro Henrique. Born 6 June 1938.

1985

The military junta has attempted to continue the trend in Brazil for grand, almost pharaonic, projects. Surrounded by tanks and technocrats, the junta managed to bring about the 'economic miracle' of the 1970s, although that had turned out to be short-lived.

The 1988 constitution gave extensive policymaking powers to presidents, making them some of the world's most powerful governing individuals but, unlike their US counterparts, presidents in Brazil could initiate any type of bill in congress

These pharaonic projects - from hydroelectric and nuclear power plants to the conquest of the Amazon - never have completely succeeded, and inflation has soared. Power is now to pass peacefully back into civil hands when the 'Third Republic' is declared.

1985

President. Incapacitated and could not take up office.

1985 - 1990

Acting president to Apr, then president upon Almeida's death.

1990

The term of office of President José Sarney, a former ally of the military regime, has seen inflation race completely out of hand. Sarney has, however, overseen the writing of a new constitution which had been promulgated in 1988, as well as Brazil's first free presidential elections in thirty years.

1990 - 1992

President. Party for National Reconstruction.

1992 - 1995

President. No party. Impeached and suspended.

1995 - 2003

President to replace Cautiero. Social Democracy.

2003 - 2011

President. Workers Party.

2007 - Present

Son of Pedro Gastao. Rival Petropolis claimant.

2011 - 2016

Female president. Workers Party.

2016

The chamber of deputies in Brazil's congress impeaches President Rousseff on 17 April 2016. The senate suspends Rousseff on 12 May pending the outcome of her impeachment trial. Vice-President Michel Temer becomes acting president. The senate removes Rousseff from office on 31 August and Temer officially becomes president.

Under President Lula da Silva, rapid economic growth was combined with radical redistribution of money to the poor, but his successor and student, Dilma Rousseff, saw the economy falter and, in 2016 she was forced from office having been accused of fiddling the figures to boost her chances of re-election

2016 - 2019

President to succeed Rousseff. Democratic Movement.

2019 - 2022

President. Social Liberal Party. Later imprisoned.

2023 - On

President for the second time.

2023

After failing to win re-election in 2022, right-wing popularist Jair Bolsonaro spends several months in the US state of Florida, close to fellow popularist, President Trump. In that time his followers organise and attempt to launch a coup to re-secure control of Brazil. When he eventually does return he is arrested and later imprisoned for organising the attempt.

2026

The European Union agrees on Friday 9 January 2026 a free-trade deal which has been twenty-five years in negotiations. The contentious Mercosur deal with Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay prompt immediate protests in Poland, France, Greece, and Belgium, with farmers blocking key roads in Paris, Brussels, and Warsaw.

Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva started his second non-consecutive presidency faced with the threat of an attempted coup and large areas of political turmoil which had been set in motion by his populist predecessor in office

Son of Pedro Luis. Born 2 Feb 1941.

Son of Pedro Carlos. Rival Petropolis claimant.