European Kingdoms

Polish Republics (Poland)
AD 1918 - 1991

Polish States All Modern States Central Europe Hessian States Saxon States The Rus / Old Russia

The commonwealth of Poland & Lithuania had been partitioned by Austria, Prussia, and Russia in the eighteenth century. Polish lands largely remained that way until the collapse of all three great powers at the end of the First World War, although the Russian section did at least gain a degree of local governance in the form of Congress Poland.

After having suffered over a century of division and occupation, the Polish people united at the end of the First World War to declare a free and independent Poland, on 7 November 1918, one which re-incorporated early modern holdings in Galicia & Lodomeria and Pomerania into the new state.

However, in a Europe which was riven by post-First World War territorial and civil wars, this was not a stable and secure Poland. It had to fight off German irregular troops in the west, and had to fight for its life against Bolshevik Russian troops in the east during the Russo-Polish War, as it tried to push its borders as far east as historical claims would allow.

In the end, those borders went too far. Under the terms of the 1921 settlement, White Russia, or Belarus, was partitioned between the 'Belarussian Soviet Socialist Republic' and Poland. Poland itself was burdened with a collection of minorities, mostly Ukrainian, which reduced the Polish majority to just sixty percent. Furthermore, East Prussia was still in German hands, but Poland now cut it off from direct land access to Germany.

The Nazi German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 not only triggered the Second World War, it also eventually resulted in Soviet occupation in 1944-1945 as the German forces were pushed back. In the territorial settlements which followed, Poland benefited from the addition of the southern half of former East Prussia to its territory, including the regions of Pomesania, Culm, and Warmia, once the seats of medieval bishops.

Poland's western border was also extended farther west, to the Oder-Neisse line, but its eastern border was greatly compressed, losing it a vast swathe of eastern territory to Byelorussia, most of ancient Galicia to Ukraine, and Vilnius to Lithuania. As a result, Poland's total territory fell by twenty per cent and the country remained an occupied satellite state of the Soviet empire, known as the 'People's Republic of Poland'.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Karl-Heinz Gabbey, from the John De Cleene Archive, from God's Playground, Norman Davies (Columbia University Press, 1979), from A History of Poland from its Foundation, M Ross, from The History of the Baltic Countries, Zigmantas Kiaupa, Ain Mäesalu, Ago Pajur, & Gvido Straube (Eds, Estonia 2008), from The First World War, John Keegan (Vintage Books, 2000), and from External Links: Józef Piłsudski (Encyclopaedia Britannica), and The Life and Ideology of Józef Piłsudski (San José State University Department of Economics), and PWN Encyclopaedia (in Polish).)

1918

The 'Second Polish Republic' (or 'Second Commonwealth') is formed on 7 November with the declaration of a free and independent state in the face of the collapsing great powers which had previously occupied it between them.

Austria, Germany, and Russia are in no state to argue. Polish general and nationalist figure Józef Piłsudski is asked to take control of the new state, which also includes Galicia & Lodomeria (today almost entirely within Ukraine, except for its westernmost edge).

A parade of Polish uhlans at Sejny, a town in Poland today, but initially Lithuanian (after 1915), which swapped hands several times in the Polish-Lithuanian War of 1919-1920

Byelorussia experiences its first attempt at creating its own state out of the post-war chaos, known as the 'Belarusian People's Republic' (BPR) amongst other names. The 'Lemko-Rusyn Republic' which is formed in western Galicia tries to link up with Russia, while eastern parts of Galicia are claimed as the 'West Ukrainian People's Republic', and the competing claims lead to war between Poland, Russia, and Ukraine.

1918 - 1922

Chief of state for ten prime ministers. Resigned.

1919

The Russo-Polish War is ignited between Poland and Ukraine on one side and the Soviets on the other over the creation of the 'Second Polish Republic' and the somewhat uncertain borders on its eastern flank. Józef Piłsudski sees this as the best opportunity to restore Poland to its former greatness.

He leads his troops into both Lithuania's Vilnius (part of the fairly brief Polish-Lithuanian War) and Kyiv, occupying western Ukraine (part of the former Polish Commonwealth). The latter move also sees Byelorussia occupied and its independent republican government extinguished.

A later dominant leader of the directorate of the 'Ukrainian People's Republic', Symon Petliura stands with Ukrainian troops in Kyiv in May 1920, prior to the Ukrainian-Polish 'Kyiv Offensive' which would ultimately fail

The Ukrainian side of the conflict is also known as the Russo-Ukrainian War. Kyiv soon falls to the Bolsheviks (in February 1919) while Ukraine is also being pushed in from the west by the Poles. The troops of the former 'West Ukrainian People's Republic' join the republic's own forces in June 1919, having already lost former Galicia & Lodomeria.

1920 - 1921

The short-lived 'Galitzian Socialist Soviet Republic' is declared at Ternopol in eastern Galicia, and the Polish-Lithuanian War is briefly fought over control of Vilnius. With Poland the victor, the short-lived 'Republic of Central Lithuania' is formed (later to be transformed into a Polish voivodeship).

Red Army pressure causes the Poles to fall back temporarily, but Piłsudski leads his forces to a notable victory against the Russians at the Battle of Warsaw. As the Poles again advance, a ceasefire is agreed with the Soviets in October 1920 and Vilnius is regained (to be held until 1939).

The new Bolshevik Russian state and the leading figures of post-First World War Poland sign the Peace of Riga which agreed their shared borders for the next twenty years

The Peace of Riga is signed on 18 March 1921, which formally divides disputed territory between the Soviets and Poles, with the area which forms modern Belarus effectively split in half. Galicia remains within the new Poland (modern western Ukraine), including the now-suppressed Lemko-Rusyn republic, and the easternmost parts of Lithuania also remain part of Poland.

1922 - 1926

Elections are held for the post of president, with Gabriel Narutowicz winning. He holds onto the post for all of five days before he is assassinated while attending an art exhibition. His successor is Stanisław Wojciechowski, who remains in the post until he is ousted in 1926.

1922

Elected president of the Polish republic (14-16 Dec only).

1922

Acting president of the Polish republic (16-20 Dec).

1922 - 1926

Replacement president. Deposed in May 1926

1926

Marshal Józef Piłsudski is at the head of the May Coup d'Etat (12-14 May 1926) which removes the president from office. While he declines the post of president himself, he effectively remains the power behind the 'throne' for the rest of his life.

Marshal Józef Piłsudski (in military uniform), born 5 December 1867 in Lithuanian Polish territory, died 12 May 1935 in Warsaw, was a Polish revolutionary and statesman, the new republic's first chief of state (1918-1922)

1926 - 1935

'President-elect' and de facto supreme authority. Died.

1935

Following the death of Józef Piłsudski, his 'Sanacja' movement (Sanation in English), which has put national interests ahead of parliamentary democracy since 14 May 1926, now begins to flounder.

With no clear path to follow, it breaks up into three rival factions, but the movement in general remains in control of Poland until 1939. The minority populations within the republic are hit by a fresh wave of repression.

1935 - 1939

Dictator of Poland (title assumed in 1939).

1939 - 1940

The Nazi German invasion of Poland on 1 September is the trigger for the Second World War. With both France and Britain pledged to support Poland, both countries have no option but to declare war on 3 September, although nothing can be done to alleviate Poland's suffering at the hands of the invaders.

As part of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviets invade Poland from the east on 17 September, and they annexe western Ukraine and west Byelorussia on 28 September.

Nazi-led German troops are shown here progressing in good order through a Polish town on the first day of the invasion, 1 September 1939

On 6 October the last Polish troops surrender, but thousands of Poles both military and civilian, escape the country to form Polish units with the allied powers, including Polish Navy vessels which serve in the Atlantic and fighter pilots who help defend Britain during the Battle of Britain (and creating social links which last right up to Polish inclusion in the European Union in 2004).

The German-occupied zone of Poland, which includes Danzig, Pozen, Silesia, and West Prussia, is partially annexed to Germany. Six days later, the remaining sections of Poland are formed into the 'General Government for the Occupied Polish Territories' which, on 31 July 1940, is re-titled the 'General Government'.

1939 - 1945

German-appointed governor-general of occupied Poland.

1941

Germany takes over the Soviet-occupied areas on 21 June 1941. These are divided between the 'General Government' and the 'Reichskommissariat Ostland' and Ukraine. On 1 August, eastern Galicia is added to the 'General Government'. Much of Minsk in Byelorussia is destroyed by the subsequent warfare between Germany and the USSR.

Photographed here in summer 1941 is a street armband seller and a group of Jewish locals, on 18 Zamenhofa Street, which is probably in Warsaw's ghetto

1943 - 1944

The Warsaw Uprising ignites after German soldiers begin the 'liquidation' of the Jewish ghetto. On 1 August 1944, the Polish resistance launches Operation Tempest, partly in response to this, but also to try and secure control of the country against communist elements.

The allies in the west are unable to provide military aid, and the Soviets deliberately withhold it as Stalin is keen on securing Warsaw for his expanded communist empire. The uprising fails after some hard fighting and Warsaw is subjected to planned destruction by the Nazis.

1944 - 1945

Chairman of the presidium of the people's council.

1945

The last German troops surrender on 17 January in the face of the relentless Soviet advance. The conclusion of the Second World War sees Poland benefit from the addition of the southern half of the former East Prussia to its territory, including the regions of Pomesania, Culm, and Warmia, once the seats of medieval bishops.

The ruins of Warsaw at the end of the Second World War took decades to rebuild, mostly with the Soviet-era concrete which is still visible today

The northern half of East Prussia is annexed to Russia as the district of Kaliningrad. Poland's western border is shifted further west, to the Oder-Neisse line, but it loses a vast swathe of eastern territory to Byelorussia, most of Galicia to Ukraine, and Vilnius to Lithuania.

As a result, Poland's total territory falls by twenty percent. Many ethnic Poles remain in Vilnius (Lithuania) or Minsk (Byelorussia) to become citizens of those countries, while others move west to remain within Poland's rearranged borders. Poland itself remains an occupied satellite state of the Soviet Russian empire, and is now known as the 'People's Republic of Poland'.

1945 - 1947

Chairman of the people's council.

1947

Marshal of the constituent seym (4 Feb only).

1947

Chairman of the people's council (4-5 Feb only).

1947 - 1952

President of Poland. Later secretary-general to 1956.

1952 - 1964

President of the state council (United Polish Workers Party).

1955

The USSR forms the Warsaw Pact in direct response to the admission of the 'Federal Republic of Germany' (West Germany) into Nato whilst itself being barred from joining. The states involved in the founding of this eastern alliance are Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Russia.

The communist government of East Germany began building the Berlin Wall on 12 August 1961, and it remained in place until late 1989

1964 - 1968

President of the council of state (UPWP).

1968 - 1970

President of the council of state (UPWP).

1970

Former German eastern territories of the pre-war period, including Hinterpommern (eastern Pomeriana), do not officially become Polish territory until Chancellor Willi Brand's Social Democratic government of the 'Federal Republic of Germany' (West Germany) now recognises the loss (Willi Brand's 1970 Warsaw speech to the Polish people is available online).

The Soviet-dominated East German government which is not recognised by the former western allies - Britain, France, and the United States - has already recognised Poland's hegemony of Pommern (under duress in 1949 when the Soviet Union had first established the 'German Democratic Republic', better known as East Germany).

East Germany of the 1970s saw a period of gradual decline as the reality of a cash-strapped, Soviet-dominated governmental structure became apparent, while West Germans were doing very well

1970 - 1972

President of the council of state (UPWP).

1972 - 1985

President of the council of state (UPWP).

1980 - 1981

The 'Solidarity' trade union is formed during a period of increasingly turbulent labour unrest. Lech Wałęsa, a shipyard electrician, becomes Solidarity's leader and the opposition's main figure (and later the country's first democratically-elected president).

Martial law is imposed on Poland the following year, but the influence of Solidarity begins to chip away at the influence and authority of the pro-Soviet government.

1985 - 1989

President of the council of state (UPWP). Resigned.

1989 - 1990

President of Poland (UPWP).

1989

As expected, or at least hoped for, the influence of the Communist party in Poland has been steadily eroded over the past decade. Free and fair elections which are held in the summer of 1989 usher in Eastern Europe's first post-communist government. The new Polish state is called the 'Third Polish Republic', and in 1990 Lech Wałęsa becomes its first president.

The Solidarity movement in Poland in the 1980s forced the first cracks in communist rule, which led fairly quickly to independence

1990 - 1991

Elected president of Poland (Solidarity).

1991

Thanks to behind-the-scenes manoeuvring by the newly-elected president of the Russian republic, Boris Yeltsin, on Christmas Day 1991 Communist USSR President Gorbachev announces the termination of the Soviet communist state.

The Soviet republics become independent sovereign states (if they had not already become so since 1989), including Belarus, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Georgia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, North Ossetia, Romania, Transnistria, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.

Former East Prussia, or Kaliningrad as it now is, remains directly part of Russia, and is now an isolated enclave on the north-eastern border of the modern republic of Poland.

The Chernobyl disaster and the subsequent attempted cover-up by the Soviet authorities was the spark which brought down the already-fragile USSR, allowing Belarus amongst many other subject territories to gain its independence