European Kingdoms

Kingdom of Poland & Lithuania / Commonwealth of Poland
AD 1569 - 1795

Polish States All Modern States Central Europe Hessian States Saxon States The Rus / Old Russia

The Union of Kreva (Krewo) had been agreed between Queen Jadwiga of Poland and Grand Prince Jagiello of Lithuania as the only certain way to halt the crusading attacks on Lithuania by Poland, the Teutonic Knights, and Moscow. The union included the offer of the Polish throne in return for the Christianisation of the Lithuanians.

Jagiello became king of Jagiellan Poland in 1386, under the name Wladyslaw Jagiello. His marriage to Queen Jadwiga and his conversion to Catholic Christianity sealed the personal union of crowns between the two countries. He also agreed to convert his Lithuanian subjects.

Nearly two centuries later, the Union of Lublin (otherwise referred to as the Accord of Lublin), was a formal joining together of Poland, Lithuania, and Ruthenia. The latter term was a Latinisation of 'Rus', the Lithuanian-controlled Slavic lands to the east, which today form parts of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, and which at the time included what the Polish-Lithuanian voivodeship of Kyiv.

There were also minor Ruthenian extensions into Poland and Slovakia. Additionally included in the union was Livonia, Polotsk, and Samogitia. The union was ratified on 4 July 1569 by Sigismund II Augustus, king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania.

Bringing into practice the terms of the union meant establishing what is generally known as the 'Commonwealth of Poland', although its more technically-correct name would be the 'United Commonwealth of the Two Nations', transposed into Polish as Rzeczpospolita, or Rech Pospolitaya.

This era is largely seen as a golden age in Polish history, while marginally less so to a Lithuania which became increasingly sidelined in terms of importance within the union. Sigismund II became the first ruler of a fully united Poland and Lithuania, although the form of the union was more that of a federal state, with a jointly elected leader who would be crowned in Kraków.

This state would have a joint senate and unified international politics. Lithuanian landowners received the right to own land in Poland, and vice versa. Both states preserved their own treasuries, state officials, separate armies, and military hierarchy.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from A History of Poland from its Foundation, M Ross, from The History of the Baltic Countries, Zigmantas Kiaupa, Ain Mäesalu, Ago Pajur, & Gvido Straube (Eds, Estonia 2008), from The Annals of Jan Długosz (English abridged version by Maurice Michael, with commentary by Paul Smith, IM Publications, 1997), from The Formation of Muscovy 1304-1613, Robert O Crummey, and from The Russian Primary Chronicle (Laurentian Text), Samuel Hazzard Cross & Olgerd P Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Eds and translators, Mediaeval Academy of America).)

1569 - 1572

King of Poland. Grand duke of Lithuania. Died childless.

1572

With the death of Sigismund II, last of the Jagiellans apart from his sister, Anna, who dies in 1596, the power to elect the king moves from the diet to the nobility in its entirety. The election of a king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania is carried out jointly, but the management of any interregnum is still a local matter.

The death of Sigismund II Augustus, the last hereditary Lithuanian ruler of Poland as depicted by Jan Matejko, which signalled the end of Lithuania's independence from Poland

1572 - 1576

The kingdom occupies (or at least heavily influences) the principality of Transylvania. Poland's precise level of control or influence seems to be unclear, while Transylvania itself is emerging from its civil war to eject Habsburg influence.

1573 - 1574

Non-dynastic. Became king of France (1574-1589).

1575

Stephen Báthory, the voivode of Transylvania under the Polish aegis, is elected king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania to replace the departed Henry of Valois, who has returned to France to claim its empty throne following the death of his brother.

Stephen's new position includes marriage to Anna Jagiellon, the last of the dynasty, while his brother becomes voivode in Transylvania and he himself adopts the title of prince of Transylvania.

While being linked to Vlad 'the Impaler', there is no evidence to show that this Wallachian ruler was ever at Bran Castle in Transylvania, now part of Romania

1575 - 1586

Non-dynastic. Prince of Transylvania.

1582 - 1583

An armistice agreement is concluded between Russian czar Ivan 'the Terrible' and the Polish-Lithuanian kingdom. Livonia is proclaimed a Polish possession (which it has been anyway, since 1561).

Russia in 1583 concludes a similar agreement with Sweden, acknowledging its supreme power in North Estonia. These acts serve to conclude the Livonian Wars in which Russia had strived for much and gained little.

1585

The duchy of Courland has officially remained a possession of the Danes until now, when it is sold to Poland-Lithuania. Gotthard Kettler, the last grand master of the Livonian Knights, remains governor of Livonia and duke of Courland until his death in 1587.

1587 - 1632

Son of King John III of Sweden. King of Sweden (1592-1604).

1592

Sigismund III inherits the Swedish throne from his late father, but his inflexible politics and passionate Catholicism causes opposition from the Swedish Protestant population, forcing the king to return to Poland. He does not relinquish his claim to the throne, however, which leads to conflict.

The former Bauskas Castle, a stronghold which had been built by the once-dominant Livonian Knights, had a Mannerism style residence built into the forepart in 1596 by the duke of Courland, Friedrich Kettler

1599 - 1604

In the absence of Sigismund III, the Swedish diet elects his uncle, Karl, duke of Södermanland, to be the new ruler. He is crowned in 1604, but by then hostilities are already underway between Sweden and Poland-Lithuania.

The First Polish-Swedish War (1600-1629) sees Swedish troops assembled in Tallinn in order to attack Livonia, but instead the army suffers significant losses at Cesis and Koknes in spite of the fact that Poland-Lithuania's main forces are fighting the Ottomans. The Swedes are driven out of Livonia in 1601. Further attacks on Riga in 1604 and Courland in 1605 also fail.

1605 - 1618

The Polish-Muscovite War is triggered - also known as the Polish-Russian War or, in Poland, the Dimitriads). It forms an eastwards extension of the ongoing struggle of wills with Sweden, as both sides make the most of the dynastic problems of the Russian czarate which are known internally as 'The Times of Troubles'.

This map of the Nordic countries and the western czarate after AD 1581 reveal the massive advance of Moscow's controlled territories since the ending of Mongol overlordship (click or tap on map to view full sized)

The fighting is not continuous, and the sides switch constantly as objectives and opportunities evolve. The Russians themselves spend a good deal of the conflict fighting one another, both with and without Swedish or Polish allies, and the aristocracy of the Polish commonwealth also lead their own private or mercenary armies against targets of their choosing as they attempt to expand into czarate territory.

The war is not formally declared by Poland until 1609, with Sweden's formal involvement taking place as part of the Ingrian War (1610-1617). With Sweden seemingly allied more closely to Russia, Sigismund is invited to 'capture' Moscow and Smolensk in 1610 by the 'Seven Boyars' (seven nobles who had only just deposed Czar Vasili IV).

His son, Wladyislaw, is elected czar of the Russias by the Seven Boyars but he does not take up his position due to opposition by Sigismund. Resistance by the population of Moscow eventually forces out the invading army, but the fighting rumbles on until 1618, when an armistice is agreed in the village of Deulino.

Michael Romanov was the first Russian czar of the House of Romanov during 'The Times of Troubles', but it would be his successors who turned the czarate of the Russias into an empire

1621

Poland-Lithuania defeats a major attempt by the Ottoman empire to enter and conquer its territory when former elder of Samogitia, Jonas Karolis Kotkevicius, holds the fortress of Chocim in the path of the advancing two hundred thousand-strong Ottoman army. The first snows of winter force the Ottomans to withdraw in defeat.

1629

The First Polish-Swedish War ends with the Treaty of Altmark. The kingdom tacitly accepts the loss of most of its Livonian territories to Sweden. The remainder, the eastern part of Livonia, named Latgallia, remains in Polish hands as Inflantia or the Inflanty Voivodeship (the principality of Livonia).

Poland is also forced to temporarily cede the port cities of Braunsberg (Braniewo in Ermland), Elbing (Elblag), Memel (Klaipeda), and Pillau (Baltiysk). The territory is termed Swedish Prussia, but it is regained in 1635.

The onset of the Thirty Years War was marked by the newly-elected Holy Roman emperor, Ferdinand II, imposing religious uniformity on all his lands, which meant that all Protestants would have to convert - an impossible demand

1632 - 1648

Son. Titular czar of Russia (1610-1612).

1648 - 1668

Lost partial control of the kingdom to Sweden.

1654 - 1655

Poland is dragged into the Russo-Polish War over control of Ukraine, in the Polish Commonwealth's far eastern territories. Russian troops seize the most important centres of the Lithuanian grand duchy - Smolensk, Vitebsk, Mogilev, and Minsk - and for the first time in Lithuanian history Vilnius is occupied, followed shortly afterwards by Kaunas and Grodno. The king is exiled between September and November in 1655.

1655 - 1660

Seeing a golden opportunity following the Russian capture of large areas of Lithuania in 1654, Swedish troops enter the duchy of Courland, triggering the Second Polish-Swedish War. Karl X of Sweden declares himself 'Protector of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth'. The occupation period ends when Livonia is officially ceded to Sweden following Poland-Lithuania's signing of the Treaty of Oliva.

1655 - 1660

King of Sweden. Opposed John Kazimierz.

1669 - 1673

Son of Prince Jeremi Wiśniowiecki of Poland.

1672 - 1699

Michał Korybut Wisniowiecki's less than successful reign sees Podolia occupied by the Ottoman empire. During this period, regional Ottoman governors are appointed to administer the territory, although the life expectancy of each holder of the post is relatively short.

The medieval fortress at Kamianets-Podilskyi in Podolia was under Ottoman control in the seventeeth century

1674 - 1696

Grand hetman of the crown (commander-in-chief).

1677

Jan Sobieski is far more successful in the various wars against Poland's enemies, especially against the Ottomans. Latgallia is now formally made a province of the commonwealth, and is administered as part of Lithuania while remaining a common possession of both nations.

1683 - 1684

Jan Sobieski and Charles V of Lorraine lift the siege of the Austrian capital of Vienna on 12 September, ending Ottoman expansion in Europe by drawing a metaphorical line in the sand. The Ottomans refer to John as the 'Lion of Lechistan', a reference to the widespread Eastern European tradition of referring to Poland as Lechia.

In 1684, modelled after the Treaty of Warsaw, a 'Holy League' is formed by the Papal States to prevent further Ottoman expansion into Europe. This coalition consists of the massed forces of the Holy Roman empire, Poland, Russia, Venice, and Spain.

The Battle of Zenta in 1697 was a Habsburg and Holy League success against the Ottoman Turks in the Great Turkish War, with the Europeans being commanded by the brilliant Prince Eugene of Savoy

1697

With the death of Jan Sobieski to a heart attack, Poland is joined with Saxony in personal union under Augustus II. This is a union which establishes a precedent which is followed when the grand duchy of Warsaw is established in 1806. In the same year, Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid leads a large group of Jews to Palestine.

1697 - 1706

Frederick Augustus I of Saxony.

1700

Sweden finds itself attacked by Russia, Poland (which has just regained Podolia), and Denmark in the Great Northern War (alternatively entitled the Second Northern War) which lasts until 1721.

Sweden's expansion at the end of the Livonian Wars had antagonised several states, notably those on the receiving end of defeats such as Russia and Denmark. The latter state takes the opportunity presented by the death of Charles XI of Sweden to organise an anti-Swedish coalition.

1702 - 1704

Sweden moves fast to try and knock Saxony and Poland out of the war by occupying large areas of Poland. Warsaw is captured on 14 May 1702, and a Polish-Saxon army is again defeated, this time at the Battle of Kliszów in July 1702.

The capture of the town of Malmo in 1709 by Count Magnus Stenbock was probably one of the last Swedish victories of the Great Northern War as Russia and her allies defeated the Swedes later the same year

Following this disaster, Kraków falls to the invaders. The Swedes force through the election of their candidate to the Polish throne, the ineffectual Stanislas Lesczynski, while Augustus marshals his forces in Saxony.

1704 - 1709

Swedish candidate and vassal.

1709 - 1733

The personal union between Saxony and Poland is renewed on 8 August 1709 when Augustus II regains the throne. His victory at the Battle of Poltava has made it impossible for Stanislas Lesczynski to retain any pretence at kingship of Poland. Instead he retreats with his Swedish masters to Swedish-controlled Pomerania.

Victory in the Great Northern War goes to Russia, Poland, and Denmark in 1721, when the Treaty of Nystad effectively terminates the Swedish Scandinavian empire. The Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth, though, has been greatly weakened. Russia gradually increases its influence within the state until the commonwealth is almost a Russian protectorate.

This map displays Nordic borders following the conclusion of the Great Northern War in 1721 (click or tap on map to view full sized)

1709 - 1733

Restored to a weakened throne. Died.

1733 - 1735

The Polish War of Succession erupts, with Stanislas Lesczynski being supported by his son-in-law, Louis XV of France and Philip V of Spain. France grabs Lorraine, fearing that its pro-Habsburg bias will see it used as a base from which to attack France itself.

Saxon troops secure southern areas of Poland in support of the rival candidate, Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, with Duke John Adolphus II of Saxe-Weissenfels leading the advance in some cases.

The fighting ceases in 1735 and is concluded by the Treaty of Vienna in 1738. It stipulates that Stanislaw Lesczinski will receive Lorraine in settlement for being deposed as Poland's king, while Duke Francis of Lorraine receives the grand duchy of Tuscany in compensation for the loss of his family's ancient lands.

Danzig was besieged by the Russians and, despite an attempted (and not particularly forceful) French relief attempt in support of Saxon forces, it fell in 1734

1733

Restored briefly. Became duke of Lorraine (1737-1763).

1733 - 1763

Frederick Augustus II of Saxony. Son of Augustus the Strong.

1764 - 1795

Polish noble. Last king of Poland-Lithuania.

1768 - 1769

The Russo-Turkish War is part of Catherine the Great's move to secure the conquest of territory on Russia's southern borders. Following the repression of revolts in Poland, Russia becomes involved in chasing rebels across the southern border into Ottoman territory. The Ottomans imprison captured Russian forces, effectively declaring war and distracting Russia from its desire to control Poland.

1769 - 1770

Austria occupies the county of Zips (or Spisz in Polish) which is an area which has been settled by Germans. In the following year, Austria annexes the county.

1772

The First Partition of Poland-Lithuania takes place on 5 August, removing large swathes of the commonwealth from Polish control. Royal Prussia together with Warmia and parts of Great Poland (Wielkopolska) are taken by Prussia (as West Prussia).

Parts of Little Poland (Malopolska) and Red Ruthenia (Rus Czerwona) are taken by Austria, which forms the kingdom of Galicia & Lodomeria. Polish Livonia (Latgallia) and Lithuania are taken by Russia.

The city of Olsztyn (or Allenstein in German) was seized by Prussia in the 1772 partition of Poland-Lithuania, but Russia and Austria also seized their own prizes

1791

On 3 May, the constitution gives formal sanction to the union with Lithuania, removing the process of electing kings and making the crown hereditary again under the Saxon dynasty. The commonwealth is rapidly dying though, so the sanction has little real effect.

1793

The Second Partition of Poland-Lithuania is carried out on 23 January. Great Poland and parts of Mazovia go to Prussia while Russia gains Podolia (which is attached to Ukraine), Volhynia, and more of Lithuania.

From 1791, Russia has operated an area known as the 'Pale of Settlement'. Initially this had been small, but it increases greatly from 1793 and the Second Partition. By the mid-nineteenth century it incorporates modern Belarus (eastern Poland at the time), eastern Latvia, Lithuania, the province of Bessarabia (modern Moldova), and western Ukraine.

Having formerly been citizens of the defunct commonwealth, the Jewish Diaspora population of the 'Pale' (mainly Ashkenazi Jews) is restricted from moving eastwards into Russia proper.

1794

Between March and September, the Polish fight a rebellion termed the 'war of independence' or Kościuszko Uprising against Russian and Prussian hegemony, led by Tadeusz Kosciusko, a Polish-Lithuanian military engineer and veteran of the USA's American Revolutionary War.

French forces were present in large numbers at the Siege of Yorktown in 1781, part of the American Revolutionary War, where they faced off against British and Hessian troops

Also termed the Polish Uprising of 1794 or even the Second Polish War, the forces of the uprising are defeated and broken, leading to the events of 1795.

1795

The Third Partition of Poland-Lithuania is enacted on 7 January. It removes both states entirely from the map. Russia grabs the rest of Lithuania and almost all of Belarus as well as replacing the duchy of Courland with a governorship.

The northern German state of Prussia takes the rest of Mazovia (as New East Prussia) and Warsaw, while Austria gains Kraków (see feature link) and Little Poland, which are added to Galicia & Lodomeria.

1795 - 1806

Poland's elective monarchy means that no particular royal house can claim to be the hereditary king of Poland, although the Saxon Wettins are the most likely candidates should a Polish kingship ever be considered.

The centre of the Galician city of Old Lvov (German Lemberg) was founded by Danylo Romanovych and was apparently named for his son, Lev

Neither Poland nor Lithuania exist as identifiable states until 1806, when Napoleon I of France liberates Prussia's Polish territory and forms an imperial satellite state. Directly administered as part of the kingdom of Saxony, it is known as the grand duchy of Warsaw.