The Couronians (or Curonians or Kurshes), were a Western
Balt tribe which
lived on what is now the north-western corner of
Latvia, immediately
to the south of the
Estonian island
of Saaremaa,
and to the west of the powerful
Samogitians. They are
referred to as Cori or Chori in the
Scandinavian sagas,
which mention the wars between the Vikings and Couronia (known as Kurland
to German chroniclers) starting in the seventh century AD. By the twelfth
century the people of both Saaremaa and Courland had built up a strong
seafaring tradition and were actively involved in raiding to the west.
Denmark's
irritation at such attacks on its territory resulted in several
retaliatory attacks against the Balts.
According to Henry of Livonia, writing his Chronicle at
the start of the thirteenth century, a lesser tribe called the
Vindi also inhabited territory in Courland. They were clearly
non-Slavic or Balt in nature and their name is preserved in the
River Windau (Latvia's River Venta), with the town of Windau (the
Latvian Ventspils) at its mouth. At the start of the second
millennium, there are two countries or people occupying this region,
called Ventava (the Ventspils area) and Vanema to their east. There
seems to be little doubt that these were the northernmost remnants
of a Belgic people called the
Venedi who
once dominated the entire eastern bank of the Vistula.
(Additional information from The History of the Baltic Countries,
Zigmantas Kiaupa, Ain Mäesalu, Ago Pajur, & Gvido Straube (Eds,
Estonia 2008) (see the
Sources
page for Northern Europe), from Eric's Chronicle, from
the 15th Yearbook of the Estonian Learned Society in Sweden, 2010-2014
(Eesti Teadusliku Seltsi Rootsis aastaraamat XV. 2010-2014), Ants
Anderson (Ed, Stockholm, 2015), and from External Link:
The Balts, Marija Gimbutas (1963, previously available online thanks to
Gabriella at Vaidilute, but still available as a PDF - click on link to
download or access it).)
c.AD 50 - 150
The
arrival on the southern Baltic coastline of the
Gothic people in
the first and second centuries AD has a great impact on the
Baltic population there.
The strongest tribe of the western Baltic bloc which had previously
manifested itself in face and pot-covered urn graves of the
Face-Urn
culture eventually disintegrates due to this and the preceding
Celtic
expansion. The other Baltic tribes have been less touched by outside
influences and conservatively preserved their local character.
The ancestors of the
Galindians,
Lets,
Lithuanians,
Natangians,
Sambians, and
Semigallians continue
throughout the entire Early Iron Age to build stone cists in which
they place urns of a family or kin, covering them with an earth
barrow secured by a stone pavement from above and stone rings around.
While available, Middle and Late
La Tène
fibulae are also imported and imitated. In marked contrast to Celtic
and Germanic graves,
however, weapons are extremely rare in Baltic graves. The inland
Prussian tribes seem to
live a rather peaceful life.
Other Baltic tribes are now developing their own distinctive burial rites.
Sudovians build
stone barrows, Couronians place their dead in stone circles or rectangular
walls, while their neighbours in central Lithuania use flat graves supporting
tree-trunk coffins with stones. The differentiation of local burial rites
from around this time permits modern scholars the chance of perceiving
tribal borders between the various Baltic tribes, which thereafter remain
unchanged in this region until the coming of the
Germans. Until
then, there is no evidence of migrations, shifts of population, or invasions
of the Baltic lands by foreign peoples.
650
By now Swedes
have established the stronghold of Seeburg (near modern Grobina) in
Courland. This is succeeded by a trading post which survives until the
beginning of the ninth century, when the invaders are defeated by the local
population.
Modern Kurzeme (ancient Courland) forms the westernmost region
of Latvia, but in the medieval period it was home to a powerful
tribe of Balts called the Couronians
c.660s - 680s
The
Icelandic and Norwegian
sagas, recorded in the thirteenth century although they hark back to
prehistoric songs, commemorate the successes of King Ivar Vidfamne of the
Swedes. Ivar is
said to conquer 'Kurland,
Saxland,
and Eisland', and all the countries in the east to Gardarike in Karelia
(Hervarar Saga). His successor, Harald Hildetand, re-establishes
Viking rule in those territories. Swedish expansion along the eastern Baltic
coasts in the period between 650-750 is confirmed by archaeologically-attested
colonies.
The numerous Baltic tribes
are currently ruled by powerful chieftains and landlords, a system which
remains in place until the beginning of recorded history in the region.
Among the Baltic tribes the
Prussians and Couronians
continue to play leading roles. In the previous century or so, the
Lets have expanded their
territory to cover much of northern Latvia, replacing the previously
dominant Finno-Ugric tribes there, the early
Estonians.
c.750
As mentioned by the Norna-Gests þáttr Saga, the king of the
Swedes,
Sigurd Ring, fights off a heavy raid by Couronians and
Kvens into the
southernmost region of Swedish lands.
853 - 855
The
Danes launch
a campaign against the Couronians. However, as part of the feared
'Eastern Vikings', the Couronians fight the Danes in a sea battle,
defeating them and enslaving half their number.
Two years later, in his work, Vita Sancti Anscharii, Rimbert, a
disciple of Archbishop Ansgar of the Bremen-Hamburg diocese mentions two
towns in connection with ongoing warfare against the Swedes, those of
Saeborg and Apulia. During the war, thousands of warriors are said to
assemble in the hill forts above these towns: 7,000 in Saeborg and 15,000
in Apulia. The numbers must be exaggerated, but the existence of sizeable
towns from which to recruit many men is not.
Rimbert also provides a detailed description of the wars waged by Danes and
Swedes against the
Couronians in the middle of the ninth century. When Rimbert mentions the
Couronians for the first time, he writes: 'A tribe, called Chori, living far
from them [Swedes], was earlier subdued by the Swedes, but it was a long
time ago, when they revolted and liberated themselves from the yoke'. Then
he mentions that at the time when Archbishop Ansgar visits the Swedish
homeland for the second time, somewhat after 850, the Danes undertake a
military expedition by sea to Couronia, but suffer a crushing defeat. Half
the Danes are killed, half their ships are captured, and the Couronians
gained a large war booty of gold, silver and weapons.
c.866 - 894
Lokeris
Couronian leader.
c.870s
Again
in Vita Sancti Anscharii, which is completed in 876, Rimbert finds five
'states' in the land of the Couronians, although in his Latin he terms them
kingdoms. They are more like tribal states which perhaps operate as a
confederation in times of external threat.
1049 - 1051
The
Couronians - Baltic or Eastern
Vikings - have become the most restless and the richest of all the Balts during
this period. That the Couronians are attacking the
Danes and that
its coasts in winter and in summer have to be guarded against them and other
Vikings from the east is attested by the Heimskringla of Snorre
Sturleson, set down during the reign of the
Norwegian King Harald
Hardrade around this time. Snorre Sturleson mentions in his Ynglinga-saga
that under the Danish kings, Svein and Magnus, a special sermon against Couronian
pirates is introduced in Danish churches.
1070
The
chronicle of Adam of Bremen describes Couronian religious habits: 'All their
houses are full of pagan soothsayers, diviners, and necromancers, who are even
arrayed in a monastic habit. Oracular responses are sought there from all parts
of the world, especially by Spaniards and Greeks'. The priests are wise old
men who are chosen by the people and held in greatest respect. Adam also
reports the existence of a church in Kurland (Couronia), erected by a merchant
as early as the second half of the eleventh century. The monk Hiltinus is
appointed bishop to the Baltic by the archbishop of Bremen in about this year.
The mission can hardly be considered a success, however, as Adam's two-year
mission ends in his death.
By about AD 1000 the final locations of the Baltic tribes were
well known by the Germans who were beginning their attempts to
subdue and control them, although the work would take a few
centuries to complete and the Lithuanians would never be
conquered by them (click on map to view full sized)
1170
Denmark is
fast rising as a great military and merchant power, and it is in its
interest to end the occasional
Estonian and Couronian
pirate attacks that threatened its Baltic trade. To that end, a Danish
fleets now makes an attack against Estonia. The fighting lasts for
three days, but the pirate threat is clearly not contained, as later
events prove.
c.1185
Sverris saga says that King Sverre's brother, Erik, spends three
years around 1185 looting
Estonian coastal areas and then sails back to Svitjod in Svealand,
to King Knut Eriksson of the
Swedes, to
whom he is related. Svitjod would seem to be Sigtuna, the most
important centre in Svealand.
1187
The
'pagans of the Eastern Sea' (Estonians
of Saaremaa, Couronians,
and Sambians (Zembs) of
Old Prussia) conquer Sigtuna,
the most important town of the
Swedes, which they
then burn down. The Swedish Eric's Chronicle of 1335 blames the Finnish
Karelians for the attack. More recently, Professor Kustaa Vilkuna has suggested
that the raid is in revenge for Sigtuna's merchants having intruded upon
Kven fisheries
on the River Kemijoki and the hunting grounds of the Karelians. The medieval
naming of a settlement in the village of Liedakkala by the River Kemijoki
as 'Sihtuuna' may be additional confirmation of this.
Two ships were filled with Viking warriors who were killed
in battle between AD 700-750, as uncovered by archaeologists
on the island of Saaremaa in 2008 and proof of a Viking raid
more than a century before the Vikings are thought to have been
able to sail across such distances
c.1200
The
Chronicle of Henry of Livonia describes a clearly non-Slavic tribe called
the Vindi (German Winden, English Wends). They live in Courland and
Livonia,
clearly the northernmost remnants of the
Venedi. The tribe's name
is preserved in the River Windau (in Latvian this is the Venta), which has the
town of Windau (the Latvian Ventspils) at its mouth. It is also preserved in
Wenden, the old name for the town of Cēsis in Livonia.
late 1100s on
The
Balts have come a long way
towards producing contemporarily-modern feudal states. The largest or most
powerful castle with a town has become the military and administrative centre
for the tribal district. Five 'states' had already existed in the Couronian
lands to be chronicled in the 870s by Rimbert. Now, at the beginning of the
thirteenth century there are eight 'states' or districts with their own centres,
each of which has several villages ('castellatura'). A similar pattern of
separate districts pertains for all the other Baltic tribes. The more powerful
feudal 'kings' extend their rule over two, three, four, or more districts. These
'kings' or chieftains possess the largest of all the castles. The most
influential of them are called 'rex' or 'dux' or 'princeps' by chroniclers.
The chronicles enumerate the names of the chieftains and even those of their
subordinates. Power and land ownership are inherited.
The hierarchical structure of chieftainship is illustrated by the
Chronicle of Volynia, which relates how twenty-one
Lithuanian dukes come to
sign the treaty of 1219 between Lithuania and the Rus of
Halych-Volynia. Of
these, five - the most powerful amongst their number - are 'grand dukes',
while the other sixteen are dukes of minor importance. From this it may be
deduced that Lithuania is now ruled by a confederation of the most powerful
chieftains. It is quite possible that such a system of government is also in
existence in the other Baltic states and has been for some time.
King
Lamikis signs an agreement which accepts Christianity into Couronian territory.
The Danes are probably
hoping that with this act the Couronian Vikings will stop raiding and devastating
Danish and Swedish
kingdoms and carrying away church bells and other objects. In 1234, a Dominican
monk by the name of Engelbert is appointed the first bishop of Courland. The
bishopric of Courland is formally declared
in 11 February 1232.
Prince-Bishops of Courland (Kurland / Kurzeme) AD 1232 - 1561
The Northern Crusade saw the
Danes secure
all of northern
Estonia
by force, while the rest of the Baltics underwent the same process from
the south. What is now Estonia and Latvia quickly came to be governed by
German prince-bishops
in Courland,
Dorpat,
Ösel-Wiek
and, governing the heart of later Latvia, the prince-bishop of
Riga. The
Livonian Knights
conquered the rest of Latvia and central Estonia. The captured territory
between Danish Estonia and
Lithuania
became known as Livonia. The district of Grobin (Grobina) was ceded to
the Livonian Knights. Records regarding the prince-bishops can sometimes
be a little sparse.
During this period, important ethnic changes took place among the
Baltic peoples. Within the
confines of Livonia,
the fusion of the kindred
Couronians (or Kurshes),
Lats (or Latgals), and
Sels (or Selonians) into
one people took place, emerging as the Latvians of the future. They took
that name from the most numerous of the Baltic peoples in Livonia, the
Lats (or Latgals). The Couronians preserved their unique ethnic identity
longer than most, being mentioned as a separate people as late as the
sixteenth century.
(Additional information from External Link:
The Balts, Marija Gimbutas (1963, previously available online thanks to
Gabriella at Vaidilute, but still available as a PDF - click on link to
download or access it).)
1234 - c.1249
Engelbert
Dominican Order,
and first bishop of Courland.
1242
Courland
falls under the domination of the
Teutonic Knights
following their amalgamation with the
Livonian Knights,
although complete conquest takes until 1267.
1251 - 1263
Heinrich of Lützelburg
Franciscan Order.
1253
Courland
is divided between the Livonian
Knights and the bishopric of Courland.
Bauskas Castle was built by the Livonian Knights in Courland
between the rivers Musa and Memele and was first documented in
1443
1260 - 1290
With
the Livonian Knights
being severely defeated at the Battle of Durbe in
Livonia in 1260, the bishop
leaves Courland and only re-enters the territory in 1290 following the successful
suppression of serious
Couronian
and Semigallian
insurgencies in 1267 and 1272 respectively. The 1267 suppression effectively
defeats the Couronians and completes their conquest. However, in 1272 the
cathedral chapter is incorporated into the territory belonging to the
Teutonic Knights,
resulting in Courland's bishopric being subject to the Order.
Peter
von Dusburg writes that in the
Prussian province of
Nadruva, in the place called Romuva, there is a powerful priest named Krivė,
whom the people regarded as pope, and whose dominion extends not only over
Nadruva, but also over Couronia,
Lithuania,
and Semigallia. The only
such 'pope' known to recorded history, Krivė is highly respected by the
kings, nobility and common people, and his rule covers almost all of the
Baltic lands during the wars
against the
Teutonic Knights.
Bishop Dietrich of
Dorpat
hates the Livonian Knights
with some intensity, so much so that he forms a coalition against the
Knights with
Lithuania, Mecklenburg and the notorious Victual Brothers who are Baltic
pirates. The Knights invade the bishopric but achieve no success. In the end
their lack of results removes from them the right to demand military service
from the
Livonian bishops.
Following Russian
provocation and the conquest of
Dorpat, the
Livonian Wars erupt in the Baltic States (between 1558-1583). Following
the dissolution of the
Livonian Knights
and the acquisition of
Livonia by the
Lithuanians,
the bishopric of Courland falls into
Danish hands.
In 1562, it too is acquired by Lithuania and reformed into the duchy of
Courland & Semigallia under Lithuanian
suzerainty.
Duchy of Courland & Semigallia AD 1562 - 1795
The Livonian Wars took place in the Baltic States between 1558-1583, but
the wars ended in 1561 for the
Livonian Knights.
However, their last grand master became the first duke of Courland under
Polish suzerainty, and the knights retained their vast estates in the Baltics.
North Estonia
surrendered voluntarily to the
Swedes. Southern
Estonia and the rest of
Livonia fell to
Poland-Lithuania.
In 1562, the German
prince-bishops sold off the last of their territory in Estonia and Livonia,
including the bishopric of Courland, which was attached to the territory
of the
Semigallians under Lithuanian suzerainty, although some coastal districts
of Courland had already been given away to the duchy of
East Prussia.
Medieval Semigallia is better known today as the Zemgale region of
Latvia (the first being
the generally-accepted international spelling of the second which is in its
Baltic form). For the most
part it is formed of flat land, largely devoid of uplands and deep river
valleys, and boasts one of the most fertile grain fields in northern Europe,
something that has ensured the prosperity of the region for many successive
centuries. The region was prosperous, which allowed the building of many
luxurious manor houses and castles, one of which survives today - the Baroque
masterpiece that is Rundāle Palace. Jelgava Palace, which is also located
in Zemgale, housed the dukes of Courland and Semigallia. It is largest
Rococo-style palace in the Baltics and today contains the castle museum.
Courland has officially remained a possession of the
Danes until now,
when it is sold to
Poland-Lithuania.
Upon the death of Gotthard Kettler, the duchy is divided between his two
sons. Friedrich owns the eastern section, Semigallia (Zemgale), from his
residency in Jelgava (Mittau). Wilhelm owns the western section, Courland
(Kurzeme), from his residency in Kuldiga (Goldingen). Wilhelm regains the
Grobina district when he marries the daughter of the duke of
Prussia. He
also pays to regain control over the Piltene district.
The former Bauskas Castle, a stronghold which had been built
by the once-dominant Livonian Knights, had a Mannerism style
residence built into the forepart in 1596 by the duke of
Courland, Friedrich Kettler
1587 - 1642
Friedrich Kettler
Son. Rules Semigallia, eastern Courland.
1587 - 1616
Wilhelm Kettler
Brother. Rules Courland, western section of the duchy.
1605
The Swedish
king initiates the First Polish-Swedish War by assembling troops in
Tallinn,
but the war starts badly with several attacks failing, including one on
Courland in 1605.
1616
Wilhelm is removed from his seat by his overlord, the king of
Poland-Lithuania
after he expresses his disappointment with the hostile landowners in the
duchy. Friedrich inherits Wilhelm's lands and reunites the duchy.
1642 - 1682
Jacob Kettler
1655 - 1660
Swedish troops
enter the duchy in 1655, triggering the Second Polish-Swedish War. Duke
Jacob is captured by the Swedes in 1658 and held for the duration of the
war. That war ends when
Livonia is
officially ceded to Sweden following
Poland-Lithuania's
signing of the Treaty of Oliva.
1670
Landrgave William VII of
Hessen-Kassel
contracts a fever while in Paris and the subsequent treatment probably does
more to kill him than the fever itself. His brother Charles succeeds him,
but he is still a minor so his mother continues her role as regent. William's
fiancée, Maria Amalia of Courland (daughter of Jacob Kettler), marries Charles
instead.
Sweden fights
Russia,
Poland and
Denmark in the Great
Northern War. It is ended with the Treaty of Nystad by which time Russia has
already gained much influence in Courland.
1711
Ferdinand Kettler
Former regent. Declared ineligible to rule himself.
1711 - 1737
Former regent Ferdinand Kettler resides in Danzig and is therefore declared
ineligible, ending the rule of the House of Ketteler in Courland. The duchy
is left without a ruling duke, although a large number of potential candidates
put themselves forward to replace the Kettlers, including the future Landgrave
Frederick IV of Hessen-Homburg.
Anna Ivanova is widely acknowledged as the regent of Courland following the
death in 1711 of her husband, the former Duke Friedrich Wilhelm of Courland.
Upon her accession to the
Russian throne, she
places her own candidate in Courland.
Ernst Biron is exiled by the new regime in St Petersburg but continues to
claim to rule. The landowners ignore him and the king of
Poland-Lithuania
announces his son, Carl, count of
Saxony,
as the next duke. This means the duchy has two simultaneously reigning
dukes. To resolve the situation, Russian Empress Catherine II recalls Ernst
Biron from exile in 1763.
Peter Biron was the last of the dukes of Courland, holding the
title for almost thirty years before he freely handed it over to
the Russian emperor
With the Third Partition of
Poland-Lithuania,
the duchy of Courland ceases to exist. The duke is happy enough to relinquish
the title in return for rewards from
Russia. The territory
is merged with that of Russian Kurzeme and Zemgale regions of
Livonia. The
duchy's title goes to the Russian emperor.
Russian Governors of Courland AD 1795 - 1915
The captured territories were divided by the
Russian
empire into three
Baltic Provinces: Courland,
Estonia and
Livonia. In 1801-1809 and from 1819 onwards supreme authority was vested
in a governor-general who was based in Riga, but at other times the
provinces were governed independently. Pilten was a division of Courland
created by the bishop of
Riga
in 1234. It changed hands several times, being exchanged between Denmark
and
Poland-Lithuania,
before being unified with Courland in 1661. Despite
Swedish
and Russian occupations, it essentially remained united with Courland and
was fully incorporated into Courland by Russia in 1796, its previous
autonomy being abolished.
1795 - 1796
Peter Ludwig Freiherr von der
Pahlen
Governor-general of Courland and Pilten.
1796 - 1798
Gustav Matthias Jakob von der
Wenge
First governor of Courland.
1798 - 1800
Carl Wilhelm Heinrich von der
Osten
1800
Overall authority in Courland is handed to the governor-general of the
Baltic Provinces, reducing
the authority of subsequent governors in Courland itself.
When the duchy of Courland was handed over to the Russian
emperor in 1795, Rundāle Palace first became the property of
Count Valerian Zubov, then passed into the hands of the Shuvalov
family, and was effectively nationalised in 1920 (click on image
to view full sized)
Napoleon invades the
Russian
empire with one of the largest armies Europe
has ever seen, occupying the Baltic States for several months until he is
forced to drag his
French-led
army back to Germany. Russian control of Courland is immediately restored.
The French administrators of Courland are shown in red.
1812
Jacques Étienne MacDonald
French commander.
1812
Jules de Chambaudoin
French intendant, 1 Aug-8 Oct.
1812
Charles de Montigny
French intendant, 1 Aug-8 Oct.
1812
Jacques David Martin
French governor-general, 8 Oct-20 Dec.
1816 - 1824
Emannuel von Stanecke
Acting governor, Jan-Feb 1816. Full governor thereafter.
1824 - 1827
Paul Baron von Hahn
1827 - 1853
Christoph Engelbrecht von Brevern
1853
Aleksandr Petrovich Beklemishev
Acting governor, 10 May-14 Jun.
1853 - 1858
Pyotr Aleksandrovich Valuyev
1858
Julius Gustav von Cube
Acting governor, 10-21 May.
1858 - 1868
Johann von Brevern
1863 - 1880
The January Uprising results in a policy of Russification. It spreads from
Latgallia to the rest of what is now
Latvia.
1868 - 1885
Paul Fromhold Freiherr von Lilienfeld
1885
Aleksandr Alekseyevich Manyos
1885 - 1888
Konstantin Ivanovich Pashchenko
1888 - 1891
Dimitriy Sergeyevich Sipyagin
1891 - 1905
Dimitriy Dimitriyevich Sverbeyev
1905 - 1906
Woldemar von Böckmann
Courland only at first but later also for
Livonia.
1906 - 1910
Leonid Mikhailovich Knyazev
1910
Nikolay Dmitriyevich Kropotkin
1910 - 1915
Sergey Dimitriyevich Nabokov
1914
The position of special plenipotentiary for the civil administration of the
Baltic Provinces of
Livonia,
Estonia
and Courland is created, but the following year the
Russian governors are
forced by defeats in the First World War to withdrawn to Tartu in
Estonia.
Jelgava viewed shortly before the destruction visited on it in
the Second World War, when bombing raids destroyed all but the
palace in the foreground and a few churches
Thanks to RussianFirst World War defeats of 1916 and 1917, the Baltic provinces are
conquered by Germany
between 1915 (Courland) and 1918 (Estonia), much to the relief of the
German-descended land-owning aristocracy. In 1918, the Baltic provinces are
formally transferred to German authority by Russia following the Treaties of
Brest-Litovsk and of Berlin, and Courland becomes part of the subsequent
republic of
Latvia.
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