European Kingdoms

Habsburg Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (First Reich)
AD 1438 - 1806

Central Europe All Modern States Hessian States Modern Balkans Modern British Isles Saxon States

The powerful Frankish king, Charlemagne, had already conquered much of the Germanic-speaking lands during and after his eventual defeat of the mighty Saxons. Then in AD 800 he was crowned 'Holy Roman Emperor' by Pope Leo III, partially in a papal attempt to be able to claim sovereign rights over the new emperor and his vast European territories. Charlemagne now carried the historical legacy of the Roman empire in medieval form.

Division followed in the ninth century, as the empire split into the Western Franks (France), Eastern Franks (Germany), and Middle Franks (Italy). The eastern half remained known as East Francia even as late as 1493, when Maximilian I made the formal claim that it was now Germania. However, Saxony's kings gaining the throne from AD 962 made the east a formidable political organisation in its own right. Several centuries of eastwards expansion and consolidation followed across Central Europe.

The last of the 'Non-Dynastic Emperors' was Sigismund of Luxembourg. Through marriage between his daughter, the Holy Roman empire fell into the hands of the House of Habsburg (otherwise known as the House of Austria), officially from 1438 until the end of empire in 1806.

Holders of the title 'King of the Romans' generally meant that the individual was also 'Holy Roman' emperor, but accession dates for each title could differ greatly, causing confusion about who was actually reigning, and from when. This had certainly been the case previously, but even the early Habsburg emperors are not immune here. Frederick III gained the former title in 1440, but the latter only in 1452, and Maximilian I in 1493 and 1508 respectively.

Even by the first half of the fifteenth century AD the Habsburgs had acquired numerous territories and, therefore, much of their prestige in German lands and Central Europe through marriages to heiresses.

(Information by William Willems & Peter Kessler, with additional information from Noble Strategies in an Early Modern Small State: The Mahuet of Lorraine, Charles T Lipp, from The History of the Franks, Volume II, Gregory of Tours (O M Dalton, Trans, 1967), from From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms, Thomas F X Noble, from Popular Revolt, Dynastic Politics, and Aristocratic Factionalism in the Early Middle Ages: The Saxon Stellinga Reconsidered, Eric J Goldberg (Speculum, Vol 70, No 3, Jul 1995), and from External Links: the Foundation for Medieval Genealogy, and Encyclopaedia.com, and Cranach Digital Archive (in German and English), and Special Collections (University of Arizona), and Holy Roman Empire (Encyclopaedia Britannica), and House of Habsburg (Encyclopaedia Britannica), and Austrian Netherlands (Encyclopaedia Britannica), and Spanish Netherlands (Encyclopaedia Britannica), and Dutch Republic (Encyclopaedia Britannica), and Holy Roman Emperor (Encyclopaedia Britannica), and Belgium History (Encyclopaedia Britannica), and Eighty Years War (Encyclopaedia Britannica), and A Short History of Holland (Stanford University (PDF)), and Belgium (World Leaders Index), and Netherlands (World Leaders Index), and Belgian Revolution (Napoleon Series), and About Liechtenstein (US Embassy of the Principality of Liechtenstein), and Prussia (Encyclopaedia.com).)

1438 - 1439

Uncrowned. King of Bohemia. Archduke Albert V of Austria.

1438 - 1439

It has been one hundred and eight years since a Habsburg - Frederick IV 'the Fair' - had withdrawn from his regency post in 1330 during the 'Non-Dynastic Emperors' period, but now this Austrian noble house directly holds the imperial seat, and in perpetuity.

As an Austrian duke of the Habsburg dynasty, Frederick IV 'the Fair' ruled over Further Austria (the largely-Swabian territories), and gained the county of Tyrol in 1406, while from 1424 he served as regent of Inner Austria for his nephews

Albert's brief reign, however, ends in a period of uncertainty in Austria and Hungary following his death in battle at Langendorf against the Ottomans. It is his son, Frederick V of Austria, who secures the imperial throne as Frederick III.

1440 - 1493

Duke of Carinthia (1424). Archduke Fdk V of Austria (1458).

1440

Elected 'King of the Romans', the last Holy Roman emperor to enjoy this honour, Duke Frederick III of Inner Austria (Carinthia, Styria, and Carniola) begins to unite all of the divided Habsburg lands under one ruler, laying the foundations for the later greatness of the ducal and imperial house in Central Europe.

1452

Emperor Frederick III becomes the penultimate Holy Roman emperor to be crowned by the Pope, and the last to be crowned in Rome. The majority of later emperors will remain entirely uncrowned by papal hands, and therefore free of any attempt to impose papal influence or authority upon them.

1453

Constantinople, capital and heart of the fading Eastern Roman empire, is captured by Mahomet II of the Ottoman empire, and Greece becomes an Ottoman province. The loss is viewed as a disaster for the Christian world, despite Rome's frequent differences with the Orthodox church in Constantinople over the centuries, and with its emperors.

The fall of Constantinople not only ended the last vestiges of the Roman empire, now dating back almost two millennia in its many forms, but it also opened up south-eastern Europe to the Ottoman Turks

1457 - 1458

The Austrian ducal office is vacant for a year. With the accession of Frederick as Holy Roman emperor and duke of Inner Austria (Carinthia, Styria, and Carniola) to the archduchy of Austria, Carinthia is united fully to Austria and remains an integral part of the Austrian succession until 1564.

1489

Those imperial states which are represented in the diet are divided into three chambers: the college of prince-electors (the 'Kurfürstenkollegium, Kurfürstenrat'); the college of imperial princes (the 'Reichsfürstenrat'); and the college of imperial cities (see feature link for details).

1493 - 1519

Uncrowned. Held Habsburg Netherlands, Burgundy, & Austria.

1493

The Peace of Senlis is signed between Maximilian and the French king, Charles VIII. This ends the latter's claim under Salic Law of ownership of the duchy of Burgundy following the deaths of Charles 'the Bold' of Burgundy in 1477 and his heiress daughter, Mary I of Valois in 1482 (Maximilian's wife). Maximilian has since altered his dynastic name from Valois-Burgundy to Habsburg.

The sole heiress of Burgundy, Mary, married Maximilian of Austria, who became Holy Roman emperor in 1493 while also ruling the Habsburg Netherlands, Burgundy, and Austria

1494 - 1495

The Habsburg Netherlands (the 'Seventeen Provinces' or 'Belgica Regia') pass to Philip, the son of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy and later king consort of Castile. In the following year an alliance is formed between Naples, the Pope, Milan, Venice, and Maximilian in order to defend Italy from Charles VIII of France.

This marks the beginning of the highly destructive Italian Wars which last until 1559. At the same time, Maximilian is being pressed for reform by a group of princes which includes Frederick III of Saxe-Thuringen.

1508 - 1509

Maximilian officially gains the office of Holy Roman emperor in 1508, even though he has effectively been holding the office since 1493 as 'King of the Romans'. In the following year the League of Cambrai military coalition is formed between France, Castile, Hungary, the Papal States, the Holy Roman empire, and Ferrara against Venice. Venice is defeated at Agnadello.

1511 - 1512

A 'Holy League' is formed in 1511 which consists of the Holy Roman empire, Spain (Castile and Leon), England, Venice, and the Papal States against France. The French win a crushing victory in 1512 against the league's Spanish-dominated forces, following which Maximilian joins the league.

Henry VIII of England, second son of Henry VII and 'Defender of the Faith' thanks to Pope Leo X in 1521, as portrayed in a very well known oil portrait on wood which dates to about 1526

Internally, an imperial circle ('Reichskreis') is a regional grouping of the imperial states of the Holy Roman empire. Although arranged as a means of organising a common defence policy and imperial tax collection, the circles are also used as a means of organisation in the imperial diet (see feature link). The prince-bishopric of Liège is arranged into the 'Westphalian Circle' from this date onwards (1512).

1519 - 1556

Held Spain, Habsburg Nethlnds, Austria. Abdicated. Died 1558.

1519

Charles V, grandson of Maximilian via Philip II 'the Handsome', is the last emperor to be crowned by the Pope as emperor and king of Italy, with the ceremony taking place at Bologna in Italy.

1520 - 1521

The bishopric of Courland is created a prince-bishopric of the Holy Roman empire in 1520. This is formalised in the following year but, largely due to Charles V, the Edict of Worms on 25 May 1521 condemns Protestant Reformation leader Martin Luther as an outlaw and heretic.

However, Martin Luther has already convinced many northern German leaders to adopt Protestantism, including Duke Philip 'the Magnanimous' of Hesse.

Philip 'the Magnanimous' played a leading role in the progression of the Protestant Reformation in Germany, dissolving monasteries and other religious foundations within his own lands for the betterment of the cause

1524 - 1525

Despite some of those German princes embracing Protestantism, they still play a part in suppressing the German Peasants' War in which poorly-armed peasants strive for greater freedoms which appear to be in line with Protestant rhetoric. In the end they are no match for the empire's well-armed and battle-experienced nobility, and their cause is largely unrewarded.

1525

The French are defeated at the Battle of Pavia, leaving Charles V dominant in Italy. Newly-installed Duke Francesco Sforza of Milan joins the League of Cognac against the emperor along with Florence, France, the Pope, and Venice. This backfires when the emperor takes military action against Milan.

1527

Pope Clement has sided with France to ward off domination of the papacy by the Holy Roman empire. With the French having been defeated in Italy, and the imperial/Spanish troops remaining unpaid, they rebel and sack Rome. Amongst the destruction wrought on the city, the tombs of Sixtus IV and Julius II are destroyed.

In the struggle for political domination in Europe the pope sided with France, with the result that the Habsburg army sacked Rome in 1527, as painted by Johannes Lingelbach

1528

Charles V raises about one hundred and forty minor lordships and other states in German lands to the rank of imperial counties. They include among their number the new counties of Lippe, and many others.

1531

Many of the empire's princes and lords are organised by Elector John Frederick I of Saxony and Duke Philip I of Hesse to form the Schmalkaldic League when meeting at the town of Schmalkalden in Thuringia.

Both have seen increasingly that there are moves by the Catholic leaders to provide a unified response to what they see as the Protestant 'threat', and they realise that the Protestant leaders need to be similarly unified in their military response (unfortunately that prompts the Catholic-led creation of an opposing League of Nuremberg in 1538).

1542

The duchy of Lorraine has gradually established itself as an important and largely independent holding during the course of the previous century or so. Since 1525 it has remained neutral in the ongoing conflicts between France and the empire whilst remaining staunchly Catholic in the face of the Protestant reformation (and therefore an important and 'legal' voice in European politics).

The Schmalkaldic League was formed in 1531 during a meeting of German princes and dukes in the town of Schmalkalden in Thuringia.

The Treaty of Nuremberg on 26 August establishes Lorraine's legitimate independence as a 'free and non-incorporable' protectorate of the Holy Roman emperor, transforming it from an imperial fief as long as it pays certain imperial taxes. The idea is that Lorraine will protect the empire's western border against French intransigence.

1545

The duchy of Parma is created out of a portion of territory which had previously belonged to the duchy of Milan - an area to the south of the River Po which is centred around the city of Parma. The new duchy is for Pope Paul III's illegitimate son, Pier Luigi Farnese. As the duchy's overlord, Charles V soon invests his own son with the title.

1546 - 1547

Charles V sees the tide of conversions to Protestant rites as a move by the many princes and lords of the empire to gain more autonomy from imperial governance. Many of them, organised by Elector John Frederick I of Saxony and Duke Philip I of Hesse, had already formed the Schmalkaldic League when meeting at the town of Schmalkalden in Thuringia in 1531.

In 1529 Philip paid host to Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli at the Religious Colloquium of Marburg, accompanied by some of their followers including Melanchthon (as shown in this wood carving of 1557)

Now that Charles has returned from his war in Italy, the two sides concentrate their forces, with Charles intent on destroying the Protestant league. Elector John is distracted by his cousin, Duke Maurice of Saxe-Meissen, invading his lands in Ernestine Saxony, and ultimately the league is defeated.

John Frederick is captured and is forced to sign the 'Capitulation of Wittenberg', losing both his status as an elector and some of his lands to Maurice.

1549

By means of the edict of the 'Pragmatic Sanction', Charles V reorganises the Habsburg Netherlands (the 'Seventeen Provinces') into one indivisible territory, and an entity in its own right, one which stands apart from the Holy Roman empire and from France.

1553 - 1555

The Italian War results in an invasion of Corsica in 1553 which disrupts Genoese rule of the island. French and Ottoman forces team up in the Mediterranean to disrupt coastal areas which are loyal to or controlled by the Holy Roman emperor.

Corsica was a land which was riven by internal feuding and fighting, and by external threats and control throughout the entire medieval period

The French are the driving force behind these operations in their attempt to gain control of Italy. They raid the coasts of Corsica, Elba, Naples, and Sicily. Then a force of French and Ottomans, together with Corsican exiles, capture the strategically important island, robbing the empire of a vital line of communications.

Their fleets leave as winter approaches, with a fairly small garrison of five thousand second line troops remaining behind. Genoa immediately organises a counter-invasion with fifteen thousand men, and much of Corsica is retaken in 1554, with the rest being gained in 1555.

1555

The Peace of Augsburg is agreed between Charles V and the Schmalkaldic League. It allows the imperial princes to choose either Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism as the official confession of their state. Calvinism is not allowed until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

1556

Charles abdicates, dividing the empire between his son, Philip II - who becomes king of Spain with its Spanish Empire colonies and governor of the Habsburg Netherlands - and his brother, Ferdinand, who receives the Holy Roman empire, Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary. Philip heads what now becomes the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs, and his Netherlands becomes the Spanish Netherlands.

The very nature of Chile's topography made it one of the toughest parts of South America for the Spanish empire to conquer, something which it only began to achieve in the sixteenth century

1558 - 1564

Brother. Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria. King of Bohemia.

1559

The Italian War ends with the signing of the Peace of Cateau Cambrésis between England, France and Spain. Emmanuel Philibert regains his duchy of Piedmont and Savoy in full as part of the war's ending and he departs his post in the Spanish Netherlands to take up his duties. Corsica is restored to Genoa, while Spain is confirmed in its direct control of Milan, Naples, Presidi, Sardinia, and Sicily.

In the same year, the last German bishop of the Estonian bishopric of Ösel-Wiek sells the castle and the town of Kuressaare to the Danes, who also take Courland.

1560

The system of imperial states has long since been brought in to replace the outdated feudal system. The imperial circle ('Reichskreis') is the modern regional grouping of the former imperial states, and the system is now fully official (see feature link for details).

Introduced in 1560, the system of imperial states replaced the now-outdated feudal system, with an imperial circle ('Reichskreis') being a regional grouping of the imperial states (click or tap on map to view full sized)

1564 - 1576

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria. King of Bohemia.

1562

The German prince-bishops sell off the last of their land in the Baltics, including the bishopric of Ösel-Wiek. The Danes cede Wiek and Dägo (Hiiumaa) to Poland in exchange for Livonian possessions on Ösel, which is reformed as a duchy. The new Duke Magnus does not govern directly but he remains active in Estonian and Livonian politics.

1564

Control of Bohemia, Moravia, and Hungary are taken fully by the Habsburgs as Holy Roman emperors, although they still undergo a separate coronation to be confirmed as kings of Bohemia.

1566 - 1568

The 'Beeldenstorm' or 'Great Iconoclasm' rips through the Spanish Netherlands from south to north. Catholic art and statues are destroyed and Catholic priests and preachers are targeted and killed by Calvinist Protestants.

The rampage ignites the Eighty Years War from 1568 (lasting until 1648). Several northern provinces in the Spanish Netherlands are backed by France as they fight against Spanish rule.

With Spain - perhaps the most powerful European nation at this time - having already conquered large swathes of the central and southern Americas, other Europeans headed northwards to discover fresh territory and perhaps their own route to China

1576 - 1612

Uncrowned. Archduke Rudolph V of Austria. King of Bohemia.

1581

In July 1581, seven provinces from the northern Netherlands claim independence from the Habsburgs of Spain to become the republic of the United Netherlands, while Spain continues to rule the southern provinces which become known as the Spanish Netherlands. The Habsburgs are thrown out of the Netherlands.

1608 - 1609

Loyal servant to the empire, Rudolph VIII of the county of Vaduz, is elevated to the rank of prince in 1608, and he and his successors continue to strive to unmittelbare lands (those which are subject to no feudal rulers other than the Holy Roman emperor in an effort to increase their power and gain a seat in the imperial diet in Vienna.

The 'Protestant Union' military alliance is formed in the same year by Protestant princes. The response in 1609 is the formation of the 'Catholic League', a coalition of Catholic states within the Holy Roman empire. Initially this is to politically negotiate issues with the Protestant Union, but events eventually build up to the first phase of the Thirty Years War.

Situated within the Rhine Valley, Vaduz (and the castle pictured here which overlooks the town) is centrally located within the country and, despite being within the Alps, it has a more temperate climate than much of the rest of the Alpine regions

1612 - 1619

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria. King of Bohemia.

1619 - 1620

At the beginning of the Thirty Years War (which starts in 1618), Bohemia falls temporarily outside imperial control, before being fully absorbed into it the following year.

1619 - 1637

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria. King of Bohemia.

1630 - 1632

Sweden enters the Thirty Years War in summer 1630. As part of its military funding, tolls and food supplies which are secured in Swedish Prussia are pivotal assets. The first major victory for the war's Protestant forces is at the Battle of Breitenfeld in September 1631, which ensures that the northern German Protestant states will not be forced to reconvert to Catholicism.

The forces of Sweden and Saxony force the Catholic League's line to collapse, and serious casualty figures are inflicted on the armies of the Holy Roman empire, Hungary, and Croatia.

The onset of the Thirty Years War was marked by the newly-elected Holy Roman emperor, Ferdinand II, imposing religious uniformity on all his lands, which meant that all Protestants would have to convert - an impossible demand

1637 - 1657

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria.

1648

The near-constant warfare and rapid change brought about by the Reformation and its Papal response, the Counter Reformation, is finally ended by the Peace of Westphalia. Under its terms, which also wrap up the Thirty Years War, Pomerania is carved up, with Sweden losing Further-Pomerania to Brandenburg-Prussia, while retaining Nearer-Pomerania.

The bitter Marburger Succession Conflict between Hessen-Kassel and Hessen-Darmstadt sees part of Hessen-Marburg ceded to Darmstadt to end the quarrel. Switzerland gains full independence from the Austrian-dominated Holy Roman empire.

In parallel, the Peace of Münster marks the end of the Eighty Years War and recognition for the independent Dutch republic. In addition, control by the Dutch and its ruling House of Orange over the 'Generality Lands' - southern Catholic lands near the border with the Catholic Habsburg Spanish Netherlands - is now recognised and consolidated.

The official residence of the landgraves of Hessen-Homburg was Bad Homburg Castle, originally constructed from the twelfth century but largely pulled down and rebuilt under the direction of Landgrave Frederick II in the 1670s-1680s

1658 - 1705

Uncrowned. Archduke Leopold VIII of Austria.

1663 - 1664

The Fourth Austro-Turkish War ends in the Battle of Saint Gotthard on 1 August 1664 in which the Ottomans are defeated by Austrian troops under Raimondo Montecuccoli (with a company of one hundred and forty men being led by Count Herman Adolph of Lippe-Detmold and also the exiled Duke Charles V of Lorraine in imperial service). The Ottomans are forced to agree to the Peace of Vasvár with Austria.

1670

German traveller John Lederer is commissioned by the English governor of Virginia to explore the surrounding territory. Approaching one of the villages along the James River, he is welcomed with friendly volleys of firearms from the Native Americans.

After leaving the chief Monacan settlement, Lederer proceeds to the main settlement of the Saponi people which is located in Charlotte County along the Roanoke River. Lederer writes: 'This nation is governed by an absolute monarch; the people of a high stature, warlike and rich. I saw great store of pearl unbored in their little temples, or oratories, which they had won amongst other spoyls from the Indians of Florida, and hold in as great esteem as we do'.

The Battle of Zenta in 1697 was a Habsburg and Holy League success against the Ottoman Turks in the Great Turkish War, with the Europeans being commanded by the brilliant Prince Eugene of Savoy

1672

Several nations declare war on the Netherlands, and the people plead for a member of the House of Orange to lead them. William III is selected. The Dutch republic finances the wars of Stadthouder William III, primarily by borrowing.

At one point before the Franco-Dutch War ends in 1678, the Dutch republic is almost overrun by Louis XIV of France, until it receives support from Leopold I and Spain.

1683

The Treaty of Warsaw is a defensive alliance between the Holy Roman empire and Poland. John III of Poland and Charles V of Lorraine manage to lift the siege of Vienna on 12 September, with support from Elector John George III of Saxony. The victory ends Ottoman expansion in Europe by drawing a metaphorical line in the sand.

1684 - 1699

Modelled after the Treaty of Warsaw, a 'Holy League' is formed by the Papal States to prevent further Ottoman expansion into Europe. This coalition consists of the massed forces of the Holy Roman empire, Poland, Russia, Venice, and Spain.

Jan Sobieski is pictured here, having played a vital part in lifting the Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1683 with perhaps the largest cavalry charge in history, consisting of twenty thousand mounted men

1699 & 1712

The territories of the principality of Hohenems-Vaduz pass to the Liechtensteins when Hans-Adam I of that house is allowed to purchase from the Hohenems the tiny and poor herrschaft ('lordship' in English) of Schellenberg in 1699 and the also poor county of Vaduz in 1712.

These two purchases are vital for Hans-Adam in that they are without any feudal lord other than their comital sovereign and suzerain emperor, so enabling his house the chance of finally acquiring a seat in the empire's diet (parliament). The principality is now a possession of the House of Liechtenstein.

1701

Elector Frederick III of Brandenburg has deliberately avoided challenging the Habsburgs in their command of the Holy Roman empire and has supported their claims to the Spanish succession. His reward comes at the end of 1700 when Emperor Leopold I agrees that he can crown himself 'king in Prussia'. His electorate is elevated to a kingdom.

1702

Spain is involved in the War of the Spanish Succession as Austria, Britain, the Dutch republic, and Portugal dispute the Bourbon accession. Lorraine is occupied during the war, forcing the ducal court to flee.

The War of the Spanish Succession was fought to avoid a shift in the balance of power in Europe with the proposed unification of the Bourbon kingdoms of Spain and France

1705 - 1711

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria.

1711 - 1740

Uncrowned. Archduke Charles II of Austria.

1713 - 1715

The War of the Spanish Succession comes to an end with the signing of the Treaties of Utrecht. Neither the British nor the Dutch will allow the other to control the southern (formerly Spanish) Netherlands, which therefore become the Austrian Netherlands, with Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI from the House of Habsburg as sovereign.

The conclusion of the war sees Spain also giving up Milan, Naples, and Sardinia to Austria, and Sicily to the duchy of Savoy. The Papal States are forced to hand over the territories of Parma and Piacenza to Austria, a definite blow to the papacy's prestige.

Philip, duke of Anjou, is recognised as the Bourbon King Philip V of Spain, but only on the condition that the Bourbon crowns of Spain and France can never be united under a single ruler

The 'Pragmatic Sanction' is also issued by Charles (in 1713) to ensure that the throne and Habsburg hereditary possessions can be inherited by a daughter, under agreement with all the leading nations. Until now these German lands have been governed under Salic Law which ensures only male succession, but Charles is the last male Habsburg in the direct line so a change is essential.

The frozen River Schelde divides a warming fire from the town of Antwerp in the near distance, painted in 1593 by Lucas van Valckenborch, by which time Habsburg control of the Netherlands had been soundly shaken

1719

On 23 January 1719, Emperor Charles VI decrees that Schellenberg and Vaduz are united as one. Anthony Florian, the ruler of the new territory of Liechtenstein, is elevated to the rank of prince of the empire, precisely the outcome which Hans-Adam had been working towards and which Joseph Wenceslaus has not quite lived to see take place.

1733 - 1735

The War of the Polish Succession gains Naples and Sicily for the Bourbons of Spain. The Spanish Philip V reunites his possessions as the kingdom of the Two Sicilies and gives them to a younger son under an agreement that the kingdom will not be reunited with Spain. In exchange, Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI gains the duchy of Parma in addition to his existing Italian possessions.

1740 - 1780

Heiress and archduchess of Austria.

1740 - 1748

The War of the Austrian Succession is a wide-ranging conflict which encompasses the North American King George's War, two Silesian Wars, the War of Jenkins' Ear, and involves most of the crowned heads of Europe in deciding the question of whether Maria Theresa can succeed as archduke of Austria and, perhaps even more importantly, as Holy Roman emperor.

The War of the Austrian Succession saw Europe go to war to decide whether Maria Theresa would secure the throne left to her by her father, but several other issues were also decided as a wide range of wars were involved in the overall conflict

Austria is supported by Britain, the Netherlands, the Savoyard kingdom of Sardinia, and Saxony (after an early switchover), but is opposed by an opportunistic Prussia and France, who had raised the question in the first place to disrupt Habsburg control of Central Europe, backed up by Bavaria and Sweden (briefly). Spain joins the war in an unsuccessful attempt to restore possessions which had been lost to Austria in 1715.

The War of Jenkins' Ear pitches Britain against Spain between 1739-1748. The Russo-Swedish War, or Hats' Russian War, is the Swedish attempt to regain territory lost to Russia in 1741-1743.

King George's War is fought between Britain and France in the French Colonies in 1744-1748. The First Carnatic War of 1746-1748 involves the struggle for dominance in India by France and Britain. Henry Pelham, leader of the English government in Parliament, is successful in ending the war, achieving peace with France and trade with Spain through the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Austria is ultimately successful, losing only Silesia to Prussia.

By the start of the eighteenth century, French Quebec was a thriving colonial city, the focus of colonial attempts to create a powerful new state in North America

1772

The Habsburgs gain parts of Little Poland and Red Ruthenia in southern Poland during the First Partition.

1742 - 1745

Uncrowned. Duke Charles Albert of Bavaria.

1745 - 1765

Uncrowned. Grandson of Duke Charles V of Lorraine.

1765 - 1790

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria.

1789

The French Revolution begins on 14 July 1789 with the storming of the Bastille prison during a popular uprising in Paris. Inspired by this, revolutionaries in the Austrian Netherlands oppose the Holy Roman emperor to found - by the end of the year - the independent 'United States of Belgium'.

1790 - 1792

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria. Gov of Milan. Died suddenly.

1790

The month of January 1790 has seen many other Belgian mini-states being formed which have joined the 'United States of Belgium'. The new state receives no foreign recognition, however, and the rebels soon become divided along ideological lines. The revolution is quickly overthrown by Emperor Leopold II.

Along with the Battle of Turnhout on 27 October 1789, the Battle of Ghent on 13 November 1789 (shown here) was instrumental in forcing the Austrian governors of the southern Netherlands to flee Brussels while Austrian forces soon took refuge behind strong defensive walls in Luxembourg and also Antwerp

1792 - 1806

Uncrowned. Archduke Francis of Austria. Last emperor.

1792 - 1793

Following a declaration of war against republican France in 1792, the Habsburgs take part in the 'Second Partition' of Poland-Lithuania, which is carried out on 23 January 1793.

1795

The Habsburgs gain Kraków and Little Poland during the 'Third Partition' of Poland-Lithuania (see feature link for more), with this territorial carve-up being enacted on 7 January 1795.

However, Habsburg rule in the Austrian Netherlands now comes to a formal end. The Convention in Paris ratifies a reunion between France and this territory, along with the prince-bishopric of Liège, the ecclesiastical principality of Stavelot-Malmedy, the duchies of Limburg and Luxembourg, and the county of Namur.

1801

The Peace of Luneville compensates several German princes for losses of territory by assigning to them ecclesiastical land in Germany which has been taken from the Papal States.

The once-formidable army of Frederick the Great was thoroughly beaten in just a month of campaigning by Napoleon Bonaparte, losing the decisive battle of Jena (shown here) and surrendering Stettin to just eight hundred French troops, making it necessary to overhaul Prussia's entire army after 1806

1806

The year sees the formal end of the Holy Roman empire ('First Reich') as it is dissolved by Emperor Napoleon I of France (the Prussian-led 'Second Reich' forms in 1871).

The Habsburg emperors revert to their Austrian title, raising the former archduchy to the status of 'Austrian Empire', as it still holds almost all its eastern territories and still dominates large swathes of German-speaking lands.