Far East Kingdoms

Vietnam

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Asia as a whole consists of five broad regions which include South-East Asia. It was South Asia which witnessed the earliest presence of anatomically modern humans in the form of Homo sapiens, with small groups either remaining in what is now India from their earliest point of arrival after leaving the Near East, or migrating along the coastline to reach South-East Asia and Oceania. Other groups headed north to enter East Asia roughly around 60,000 BC.

Around 2000 BC, Chinese rice and millet farmers spread southwards into a region which stretched between Early Vietnam and today's Burma. There, they interbred with local hunter-gatherers in two main pulses, this being the first with the second taking place around the end of the first century BC. The term 'Viet' ('Yue') was applied by the Chinese to the various peoples they found on the southern fringes of the second century BC Han empire, including the people of the Red River delta. They could also be referred to as the 'Lac' people, perhaps due to mythological tales of Lac Long Quan ('Lac Dragon Lord'), father of the founder of the Van Lang kingdom.

It has been suggested by some modern scholars that the Lac people were closely related to the Viet (Yue) of East Asia's entire coastal region. Others have questioned this approach by demonstrating that shared cultural and linguistic traits were also shared with the many other non-Chinese people who lived in neighbouring South-East Asia. The truth is likely to consist of a complex picture of integration at various times between coastal proto-Chinese groups and South-East Asian native groups. Linguistic analyses supports a mixed ethnic and cultural background for modern Vietnamese.

What today is modern Vietnam emerged from two states: Annam in the north (later known as Nam Viet or Dai Viet), and Champa in the south. The northern kingdom eventually became free of Chinese rule and later conquered its long-term southern rival. Even this expanded kingdom still did not fully resemble the modern country as Funan controlled the far south. It would be the best part of four hundred years before that would happen.

Although a separate and distinct language, Vietnamese borrows much of its basic vocabulary from Mon-Khmer, tonality from the Thai languages, and some grammatical features from both Mon-Khmer and Thai. Vietnamese also exhibits some influence from Austronesian languages, and possibly has its very origins here, as well as large infusions of Chinese literary, political, and philosophical terminology of later periods.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Vietnam: A New History, Christopher Goscha, and from External Links: Bradshaw Foundation, and Ancient Chinese farmers sowed literal seeds of change in south-east Asia (Science News), and Traces of early humans found in Ba Be National Park (Vietnam Plus), and Vietnam (Countrystudies), and Encyclopaedia Britannica.)

Van Lang Kingdom (Hung Dynasty) (Vietnam)
2879 - 258 BC

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The semi-legendary Hung dynasty involved the mythical rulers of the kingdom of Van Lang. According to this legend, much of which was only written down after the twelfth century AD, this kingdom emerged at about the same time as the mythological rulers of the Chinese legendary period.

The first of its rulers was Hung Vuong, in Vietnamese mythology the oldest son of Lac Long Quan ('Lac Dragon Lord'), who came to the Red River delta from his home in the sea, and his partner, Au Co, a Chinese immortal. Lac Long Quan, a Vietnamese cultural hero, is credited with teaching the people how to cultivate rice (something which took place immediately prior to the arrival of the Phung-nguyen culture in Vietnam).

According to tradition the Hung dynasty of mountain dwellers ruled the coastal folk of Van Lang for eighteen generations of kings (with mountain and coastal divisions of a group being a common South-East Asian separation of of roles). This tradition is potentially an oral record of sorts which remembered the division of distinct groups of early Vietnamese. The kingdom is largely associated by Vietnamese scholars with the Dong Son culture, although its timeline allows it to cross over into a few other cultures.

It should be borne in mind, though, that archaeology supports a date of between 1000-500 BC for the founding of the first Vietnamese kingdom, so perhaps only the latter parts of this dynasty can be considered to be remotely factual. Prior to that, it could be said that only tribal domains existed. An important aspect of the Dong Son culture by the sixth century BC was the tidal irrigation of rice fields through an elaborate system of canals and dikes. The fields were called 'Lac' fields and 'Lac', mentioned in Chinese annals, is the earliest recorded name for the Vietnamese people.

The Hung kings ruled Van Lang in feudal fashion with the aid of the Lac lords. These controlled the communal settlements around each irrigated area, while organising the construction and maintenance of the dikes, and regulating the supply of water. Besides cultivating rice, the people of Van Lang grew other forms of grain and beans, and raised stock, mainly buffalo, chickens, and pigs.

Pottery-making and bamboo-working were highly developed crafts, as were basketry, leather-working, and the weaving of hemp, jute, and silk. Both transport and communication were provided by dugout canoes, which plied the network of rivers and canals. The last Hung king was overthrown in the third century BC by An Duong Vuong, the ruler of the neighbouring upland kingdom of Annam.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Vietnam: A New History, Christopher Goscha, from Early Mainland Southeast Asia, C Higham (River Books Co, 2014), from Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopaedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Keat Gin Ooi (ABC-Clio, 2004), from The Macmillan Dictionary of Archaeology, Ruth D Whitehouse (Macmillan, 1983), and from External Links: Bradshaw Foundation, and Ancient Chinese farmers sowed literal seeds of change in south-east Asia (Science News), and Traces of early humans found in Ba Be National Park (Vietnam Plus), and Vietnam (Countrystudies).)

fl c.3029 - 2880 BC

Mythical first Van Lang king in today's Vietnam.

c.3029 BC

According to legend, the first ruler of the Vietnamese people is De Minh, a descendant of a mythical Chinese ruler who is the father of Chinese agriculture. De Minh and an immortal fairy of the mountains produce Kinh Duong, ruler of the 'Land of Red Demons', who marries the daughter of the 'Dragon Lord of the Sea'.

In today's Vietnam, 'Hung Kings Commemoration Day' is determined by the lunar calendar so that, on 10 March, people enjoy a day off to commemorate the legendary Hung Kings

According to legend, their son (or grandson), Lac Long Quan ('Dragon Lord of Lac'), is the first truly Vietnamese king. To make peace with the Chinese, Lac Long Quan marries Au Co, a Chinese immortal, who bears him one hundred eggs from which spring one hundred sons.

Later the king and queen separate. Au Co moves with fifty of her sons into the mountains, and Lac Long Quan keeps the other fifty sons and continues to rule over the lowlands (a division which seems anyway to exist during the Da But and other archaeological cultures). Lac Long Quan's eldest son succeeds him as the first of the Hung (or Hong Bang) kings ('vuong') of Vietnam's first dynasty. As such, he is regarded as the founder of the Vietnamese nation.

His successors also take the name of Hung Vuong, with each king seemingly ruling for between one hundred and two hundred years. Each king also hails from a different line or house, each one being uniquely named. This suggests that each 'king' is more likely to be a consolidated reignal title for a series of kings.

A new study, led by researcher Dr Catherine J Frieman of the ANU School of Archaeology and Anthropology, revealed in 2017 findings showing a number of settlements along the Mekong delta region of southern Vietnam which were part of a significant trading network

fl c.2879 - 2794 BC

Son. Founder and first 'Hung'/'Hong Bang' king. Càn line.

fl c.2793 - 2525 BC

Son. 'Dragon Lord of Lac'. First truly Vietnamese king.

fl c.2524 - 2253 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Cấn line.

c.2500 BC

A vast trading network operates in Vietnam during this period. A number of settlements along the Mekong Delta region of southern Vietnam around Rach Nui are part of a significant network which manufactures and circulates large volumes of items over hundreds of kilometres of territory. This all forms a prelude to the advent of the Phung-nguyen culture.

fl c.2252 - 1913 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Chấn line.

fl c.1912 - 1713 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Tốn line.

fl c.1712 - 1633 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Ly line.

c.1700 BC

Archaeology for the Phung-nguyen culture shows that burial customs change around this time, coinciding with the introduction of silk-making and legendary recordings of the appearance of the militaristic Xich Ty people in the north. Their 'invasion' of Van Lang forces the kingdom to address its own recently-fading authority, and to reinvigorate itself in order to repulse this invasion, which it does.

Phung-nguyen culture pots were typically flat-bottomed, with the culture as a whole showing influences or links with southern China

fl c.1632 - 1432 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Khôn line.

fl c.1431 - 1332 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Đoài line.

fl c.1331 - 1252 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Giáp line.

c.1300 BC

The Middle Bronze Age Dong Dau culture provides the historical people of the mythical Van Lang kingdom with strong influences when it comes to ceramics production. Pottery which forms part of this culture includes parallel markings which are absent on pottery from the recently-faded Phung-nguyen culture, although the Dong Dau is sometimes classified as a late phase of the Phung-nguyen.

fl c.1251 - 1162 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Ất line.

fl c.1161 - 1055 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Bính line.

fl c.1054 - 969 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Đinh line.

fl c.968 - 854 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Mậu line.

fl c.853 - 755 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Kỷ line.

fl c.754 - 661 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Canh line.

fl c.660 - 569 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Tân line.

c.600s BC

Dong Son culture is now firmly based on wet-rice cultivation and bronze casting along the River Ma and in the Red River delta. This is the golden age for bronze tools in Vietnam. Archaeological evidences comprises bronze weapons, tools, now-iconic bronze drums, and a copper mine. Locals have customs which include betel-nut-chewing and teeth-blackening.

The people of the Dong Son formed a loose confederation of societies which occupied northern Vietnam, with villages typically being located in the deltas of the Hong, Ma, and Ca rivers

fl c.568 - 409 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Nhâm line.

c.550 BC

An important aspect of the region's Dong Son culture by the sixth century BC is the tidal irrigation of rice fields through an elaborate system of canals and dikes. The fields are known as 'Lac' fields and 'Lac', mentioned in Chinese annals, is the earliest recorded name for the Vietnamese people.

fl c.408 - 258 BC

King(s) of Van Lang. Quý line.

258/257 BC

The largely mythical Van Lang kingdom is conquered by An Duong Vuong of the kingdom of Annam. Its territories are merged with his to form a unified kingdom, albeit one which is of short-lived duration.

Annam Kingdom / Au Lac Kingdom (Thuc Dynasty) (Vietnam)
257 - 207 BC

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The history (and prehistory) of Early Vietnam included a largely mythical kingdom in the north of today's Vietnam by the name of Van Lang. This essentially provided a dynastic framework for the region's archaeological cultures until it was conquered in the third century BC. It was the small state of Annam, situated alongside, which achieved temporary glory by managing this feat.

Annam was an upland Viet state which was close to the Red River delta. Like Van Lang it was part of the Dong Son archaeological culture but, unlike Van Lang, its ruler has a firm basis in historical reality, even if his story is largely presented in mythical form. That ruler, An Duong Vuong, united the two territories to form the kingdom of Au Lac. He built a new capital at Co Loa, just thirty-five kilometres to the north of today's city of Hanoi. To the south of his territories were the peoples who would soon form the Champa states, along with the Dong Nai Iron Age culture which was the prototype for the little-known kingdom of Funan.

Annam was strongly influenced by Qin dynasty China. It and its descendants also spent a long period being dominated by China, whether willingly or otherwise, following several Chinese attempts at subjugation between 221-207 BC. Its Thuc (or Thu) dynasty lasted for almost exactly the same period as the Chinese Qin - in other words not particularly long at all. Its replacement - Nam Viet - was set up in 207 BC by an errant Qin general by the name of Zhao Tuo.

However, that name, Annam, is Chinese for 'The Pacified South'. This means that it can only have been applied after China had finally conquered the Au Lac kingdom in 207 BC. The introduction of 'Au Lac' in 257 BC suggests a typical link to the Lac people who largely formed the basis for today's Vietnamese population (with various additions). It may have been a new name for a new kingdom which perhaps had only previously existed as a regional territory. It certainly cannot have been named Annam.

Despite the problems with the use of the name Annam prior to Chinese conquest, from this point forwards (probably thanks to the region's recognition by China as an opponent to be conquered) the name was largely used to describe Vietnam as a whole until the end of the French colonial period in the late Dai Viet empire.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Vietnam: A New History, Christopher Goscha, from A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD), Rafe de Crespigny (Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 4 China, Vol 19, Brill, 2006), from Early Mainland Southeast Asia, C Higham (River Books Co, 2014), from Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopaedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Keat Gin Ooi (ABC-Clio, 2004), and from External Links: Ancient Chinese farmers sowed literal seeds of change in south-east Asia (Science News), and Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Vietnam (Countrystudies), and Vietnam in the First State Foundation Period (Vietnam National Museum of History).)

257 - 207 BC

Conquered Van Lang to create a Vietnamese kingdom.

221 - 214 BC

Over the course of five military campaigns, Emperor Qin Shihuang largely manages to subdue the Yue tribes and kingdoms of the coastal south of today's China. During the preceding chaos of the 'Warring States' period they have gained control of much of Sichuan, but the steamy jungles of the south and Yue skills at guerrilla warfare make their conquest a tough and brutal process.

Emperor Qin Shihuang created the 'Terracotta Army' to accompany him on his trip onto the afterlife and, according to the UNESCO World Heritage Centre, archaeologists suspect that an unexcavated tomb could contain a replica of the entire city of Xi'an, which the warriors also guard

Over 100,000 Qin men are lost in the first attempt, but the building of a supply canal for the second campaign ensures steady progress thereafter. The Qin army even reaches as far south as Annam during one expedition.

207 BC

Having determined to continue their conquests to the south, the Qin army finally completes its conquest of Annam. The kingdom is subjugated, but this act takes place just as the hated Qin dynasty is crumbling to be replaced by its implacable enemy, the Han, following a short but intensive civil war.

The commander of the conquests in the south, Zhao Tuo, refuses to be subjected to Han commands so he combines the territories which he currently commands in what is now southern China and northern Vietnam to create his own kingdom of Nam Viet (Nan Yue to his Chinese troops).

Nam Viet Kingdom / Nan Yue Kingdom (Chieu / Trieu Dynasty) (Southern China & Vietnam)
207 - 111 BC

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The history of Early Vietnam included a largely mythical kingdom in the north of today's Vietnam by the name of Van Lang. This essentially provided a dynastic framework for the region's archaeological cultures until it was conquered in the third century BC. It was the small state of Annam which achieved this feat, gaining temporary glory by managing it and unifying the north of today's Vietnam in the process.

However, over the course of five military campaigns, Emperor Qin Shihuang of Qin dynasty China was intent on subduing the Yue tribes and kingdoms of the coastal south. His armies completed that task around 214 BC but continued to push southwards. In 207 BC they conquered Annam, unfortunately just too late for it to be any benefit to the crumbling authority of the hated Qin. It found itself being replaced by its implacable enemy, the Han, following a short but intensive civil war.

Zhao Tuo, commander of the Qin conquests in the south and now the magistrate under the military commander, Ren Xiao, had been born in the state of Zhao, one of those which the Qin had conquered during the 'Warring States' period. Now, having been advised by the dying Ren, he refused to be subjected to Han commands. Instead he combined the territories which were now under his command in what today is southern China and northern Vietnam, to create his own kingdom of Nam Viet (or Nan Yue to his Chinese troops and subjects in the northern regions of his kingdom).

His dynasty of rulers was named the Chieu (in twentieth century scholarly works) or Trieu in revised translations. Zhao Tuo divided his kingdom of Nam Viet into nine military districts which included the southern three (Giao Chi, Cuu Chan, and Nhat Nam), all of which are included the northern part of today's Vietnam. Unfortunately his dynasty would be the only one of this kingdom, although the name would be revived by the Nam Viet kingdom of the sixth century. The Lac lords of the former Van Lang kingdom continued to govern in the Red River delta, but now as vassals of Nam Viet.

Names given below are in a variety of formats, with the first being a twentieth century translation combined with the word 'king' ('vuong'), followed by a twentieth century Chinese translation, and a twenty-first century Vietnamese translation (admittedly with the complex accented lettering largely absent).

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Vietnam: A New History, Christopher Goscha, from A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD), Rafe de Crespigny (Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 4 China, Vol 19, Brill, 2006), from Early Mainland Southeast Asia, C Higham (River Books Co, 2014), from Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopaedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Keat Gin Ooi (ABC-Clio, 2004), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Vietnam (Countrystudies).)

207 - 137 BC

Qin general of the south who set up his own kingdom.

196 BC

In June or July of this year the Han emperor, Gaozu, dispatches Lu Jia to recognise Zhao Tuo as king of Nan Yue, no doubt having recognised the current impossibility of reconquering it. Lu hands Zhao a seal which legitimises his kingship in the eyes of the emperor, in return for nominal submission to the Han.

The Han conquest of Qin China had to wait until the great Qin emperor himself was dead and it still took a year of fighting to destroy the Qin armies. Once the victors had completed their own civil war, the Han set about expanding southwards, invading the Nam Viet kingdom in 111 BC (click or tap on map to view full sized)

185 BC

The power behind the Han throne, Empress Lü, has her officials outlaw the trade of iron and horses with Nan Yue. Zhao Tuo retaliates by abandoning his submission when he proclaims himself Emperor Wu of Nan Yue. He attacks the neighbouring state of Changsha in southern China from which he captures a few border towns.

181 BC

General Zhou Zao is dispatched by Empress Lü of Han to attack Nan Yue, but the heat and humidity of the south results in many of his officers and men falling ill. The general fails to make it across the mountains into enemy territory.

Now on a full war footing, Zhao Tuo begins to menace other neighbouring states, this time Min Yue, Western Ou, and Luo. After securing their submission he begins passing out edicts in a manner which is similar to that used by the Han emperor.

180 BC

Towards the end of the year Emperor Wen of Han undertakes efforts to appease Zhao. Empress Lü is dead, leaving this newly-installed successor with a free hand to govern as he wishes. Learning that Zhao's parents had been buried in Zhending, he sets aside a town close by simply to tend to their graves. Zhao's cousins are appointed to high office in the Han court. The emperor also withdraws the army which has been stationed in Changsha, on the Han-Nan Yue border.

Zhao Tuo, born in the Chinese state of Zhao which was then conquered by Qin, found himself in a position of power in southern China and northern Vietnam during the final decline of the Qin dynasty, so he forged a kingdom of his own rather than be forced to side with the subsequent Han Chinese dynasty

In response, Zhao rescinds his claim to be emperor while communicating with the Han. However, he continues to use the title of emperor within his own kingdom. Tribute-bearing envoys from Nan Yue are sent to the Han to help smooth relations further, with the result that the iron trade is resumed.

137 - 125 BC

Grandson. Died of illness.

137 BC

Immediately upon his accession, Zhao Mo is beset by the southern Chinese rival state of Min Yue and its king, Zou Ying. Zhao Mo sends to the Han for assistance as his nominal overlord. The Han respond by sending troops against Min Yue, but before they can get there Zou Ying is killed by his brother, Zou Yushan, who immediately surrenders to the Han.

125 - 113 BC

Son. Somewhat brutal and murderous.

113 - 111 BC

Son. Half-Han. Murdered by his prime minister.

112/111 BC

Emperor Wu Di of Han sends missions to Nam Yue to summon Zhao Xing to the Han court. Zhao Xing elects to submit but is opposed by his prime minister and the state's military chief, Lü Jia. The Han send two thousand troops to arrest Lü Jia but he pre-empts their arrival, launching a coup which results in the murder of Zhao Xing, the Han dowager empress, and all of their supporters. Zhao Xing's brother is proclaimed king and immediately declares war on the Han.

Conquered very soon after Nam Yue, the Dian kingdom was focussed around the Dian Lake plateau of northern-central Yunnan, first emerging during the Spring and Autumn period during which the Middle Zhou ruled the northern Chinese empire

111 BC

Brother. Defeated, captured, and executed by the Han.

111 BC

In response to the loss of many of his two thousand troops, Emperor Wu Di of Han sends a much larger force, around 100,000 men, which sweeps into the capital, Panyu. Zhao Xing and Lü Jia flee by boat, but are captured and executed. The kingdom has already fallen, heralding the start of the 'First Chinese Domination of Vietnam'.

First Chinese Domination of Vietnam (Iron Age)
111 BC - AD 40

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The history (and prehistory) of Early Vietnam included a largely mythical kingdom in the north by the name of Van Lang. This essentially provided a dynastic framework for the later archaeological cultures until, in the third century BC, the small state of Annam achieved temporary glory by conquering Van Lang. One generation later its replacement - Nam Viet - was set up by an errant Qin general by the name of Zhao Tuo.

He refused to accede to Chinese demands of obedience, and Nam Viet enjoyed nearly a century of independence until the Chinese returned. This time, when rebutted by Nam Viet's refusal to swear obedience, Emperor Wu Di of Han sent a large force of around a hundred thousand men to sweep into the kingdom's capital, Panyu. The ruling elite fled, but the king and his prime minister were captured and executed.

Temples which were dedicated to the prime minister and security chief (one and the same person) suggest that his wives and troops subsequently scattered across the Red River delta in northern Vietnam, possibly fighting on until 98 BC. The kingdom, though, had fallen. It remained a Chinese subject during the 'First Chinese Domination of Vietnam' between 111 BC to AD 40.

It was during this period, roughly around the end of the first century BC, that a second pulse of migration took place between southern China and a swathe of territory which stretches between Burma and Vietnam. Farmers here inherited a genetic makeup which differed in some ways from that of the earlier Man Bac migrants who had left southern China around 2000 BC, but still closely resembled the DNA of present-day inhabitants of southern China.

The dominating policy throughout this period was cultural assimilation. However, the presence of collections of artefacts of the Dong Son culture, such as bronze drums, pottery, and bronze bells are claimed as being manifestations of the strong vitality of Viet culture, as well as the adoption of outside cultural elements which would help to develop a Vietnamese national culture.

In the first century (AD 40-43) the Trưng sisters of northern Vietnam rebelled against Later Han domination there. With popular support, Trưng Trắc and Trưng Nhị were able to end the first period of Chinese domination and set up a state of their own. Its name has not survived in recorded history, but this 'Autonomous Nam Viet State' did indeed survive, albeit for only three years.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Vietnam: A New History, Christopher Goscha, from A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD), Rafe de Crespigny (Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 4 China, Vol 19, Brill, 2006), from Early Mainland Southeast Asia, C Higham (River Books Co, 2014), from Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopaedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Keat Gin Ooi (ABC-Clio, 2004), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Vietnam (Countrystudies), and Ancient Chinese farmers sowed literal seeds of change in south-east Asia (Science News).)