European Kingdoms

Arverni (Gauls)

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In general terms, the Romans coined the name 'Gaul' to describe the Celtic tribes of what is now central, northern, and eastern France. The Gauls were divided from the Belgae to the north by the Marne and the Seine, and from the Aquitani to the south by the River Garonne, while also extending into Switzerland, northern Italy, and along the Danube (see feature link for a discussion of the origins of the Celtic name).

By the middle of the first century BC, the Arverni were located in southern-central Gaul, in the area around the modern Auvergne. They were neighboured to the north by the Bituriges Cubi, to the north-east by the Aeduii, to the east by the Segusiavi, to the south by the Vellavi and Gabali, and to the west by the Cadurci and Lemovices, and perhaps also by the powerful Pictones.

The Arverni tribal name can be broken down relatively easily. It starts with 'ar' which means 'ar' ('at', or 'before', or 'next to'), plus 'vern'. The same first part was used in 'Aremorio', a word used to describe Brittany in its earliest days as a home for Celts. This may come from the proto-Celtic *werno- or *wernā- which means 'alder'. The modern Welsh form is (noun) 'gwern', 'alder grove', perhaps producing a name which meant 'by the alder grove'.

The Arverni were located in the Auvergne, to which they gave their name, and their most powerful and important stronghold was Gergovia. This has been identified as Merdogne, a village which since 1865 has been better known as Gergovie, near Clermont-Ferrand (in the Puy-de-Dome département). It is often held to be the birthplace of Vercingetorix and would have been a transition point between Corent (see below) and Augustonemetum.

That Augustonemetum was one of the tribe's major later towns, with the 'nemet' in question being a holy grove. In full it was Augustonemetum Arvernorum, which means 'Augusta Arvernorum, the civitas of the Arverni'. Its modern name is Clermont-Ferrand. It was founded by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa around 27 BC as part of Roman reorganisation of the province of Gaul (prior to the Cantabrian and Alpine wars).

Other oppida included Aulant (Puy-de Dome), now part of the outskirts of Clermont-Ferrand. This site was rediscovered in 1939 during the construction of a new air base. This agglomeration as it is known was set up during the third and second centuries BC to cover between 1,650-2,000 hectares. It is considered to be the first capital city of the Arverni.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, Edward Dawson, & Trish Wilson, with additional information by Rhys Saunders, from The History of Rome, Volume 1, Titus Livius, translated by Rev Canon Roberts, from A Genetic Signal of Central European Celtic Ancestry, David K Faux, from Celts and the Classical World, David Rankin, from The Civilisation of the East, Fritz Hommel (Translated by J H Loewe, Elibron Classic Series, 2005), from Europe Before History, Kristian Kristiansen, from The Celtic Encyclopaedia, Harry Mountain, from the Encyclopaedia of European Peoples, Carl Waldman & Catherine Mason, from Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, TR Holmes, from Geography, Strabo, translated by H C Hamilton Esq & W Falconer, M A, Ed (George Bell & Sons, London, 1903), from Geography, Ptolemy, from Roman History, Cassius Dio, from Research into the Physical History of Mankind, James Cowles Pritchard, from Encyclopaedia of the Roman Empire, Matthew Bunson (1994), and from External Links: The Works of Julius Caesar: Gallic Wars, and Perseus Digital Library, and Geography, Strabo (H C Hamilton & W Falconer, London, 1903, Perseus Online Edition), and The Natural History, Pliny the Elder (John Bostock, Ed), and Jones' Celtic Encyclopaedia, and L'Arbre Celtique (The Celtic Tree, in French), and Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz or Dictionnaire Historique de la Suisse or Dizionario Storico dell Svizzera (in German, French, and Italian respectively).)

c.600 BC

The first century BC writer, Livy (Titus Livius Patavinus), writes of an invasion into Italy of Celts during the reign of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, king of Rome. As archaeology seems to point to a start date of around 500 BC for the beginning of a serious wave of Celtic incursions into Italy, this event has either been misremembered by later Romans or is an early precursor to the main wave of incursions.

An idealised illustration of Gauls on an expedition, from A Popular History of France From The Earliest Times Volume I by Francois Pierre Guillaume Guizot

Livy writes that two centuries before major Celtic attacks take place against Etruscans and Romans in Italy, a first wave of invaders from Gaul fights many battles against the Etruscans who dwell between the Apennines and the Alpine region.

At this time, the Bituriges are the supreme power amongst the Celts (who already occupy a third of the whole of Gaul). Livy understands that this tribe had formerly supplied the king for the whole Celtic race, either suggesting a previously more central governance of the Celts which is now beginning to fragment or the typical assumption that one powerful king rules an entire people.

The prosperous and courageous, but now-elderly Ambigatus is the ruler of the Bituriges, and over-population means a division of its number is required. Ambigatus sends his sister's sons, Bellovesus and Segovesus, to settle new lands with enough men behind them to put down any opposition.

The origins of the Euganei, Ligurians, Raeti, Veneti, and Vindelici are confused and unclear, but in the last half of the first millennium BC they were gradually being Celticised or were combining multiple influences to create hybrid tribes (click or tap on map to view full sized)

Bellovesus heads towards Italy, inviting fellow settlers to join him from six tribes, the Aeduii, Ambarri, Arverni, Aulerci, Bituriges, Carnutes, and Senones. The body of people which led by Bellovesus himself apparently consists mainly of Insubres, a canton (or sub-division) of the Aeduii. This intrusion triggers a major shift in the region's Golasecca culture.

500s BC

Recent archaeology has provided excellent evidence of Arverni life outside the Gondole oppida. The first job involves deforestation and the de-swamping of the Limagne plain which allows the tribe to generate an agricultural surplus. Crops include cereals and legumes (later to be supplemented by market gardens, orchards, and vineyards following Roman influence).

As befits their Indo-European steppe heritage they are also pastoralists, keeping cattle, sheep, and pigs, with sheep remains suggesting that they are kept for their by-products such as wool and milk, rather than for their meat.

Canine remains are also found here. According to ancient texts these are kept for the purposes of war or hunting. Mining is another outside activity, with mineral resources including silver, gold, and copper.

The Magdalenenberg site was hiding just a short distance from Heuneburg, a settlement in southern Germany which was held by a Celtic prince of the Hallstatt culture during the late seventh century BC

200s - 100s BC

During the third and second centuries BC, the Arverni are one of the most powerful Gaulish tribes. They reach the height of their power and influence under the leadership of Luernios (the Latin form of his name) in the first half of the second century BC.

Unfortunately, his son, Bituitous (or Betultich in its Gaulish original format), is not quite up to the task, and is defeated by the Romans in one of their earliest conquests in Gaul.

c.180 - 167 BC

Ruled the tribe during the height of its power.

c.167 - 123 BC

Son. Captured by Rome.

123 - 121 BC

The Allobroges come into direct conflict with Rome following the latter's defeat of the Salluvii. That tribe's king, Tuto-Motulus, flees northwards and seeks shelter with the Allobroges.

They welcome him in, and when Rome demands that he is handed over, they refuse. Having declared war, Rome sends Quintus Fabius Maximus to attack them in 121 BC. He is the son of Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus, consul of 145 BC, and is consul himself during this year.

Rome's republic was usually headed by two consuls and the Senate, but on a very few occasions the post was replaced, usually by military appointments

He campaigns in Gallia Transalpina (the modern Auvergne and Rhône-Alpes regions) with Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, fighting the Allobroges, Arverni, and Helvii. They are defeated and the consul is awarded the honour of a triumph which is famous for its spectacle, with the Arverni ruler, Bituitus, being displayed in his silver battle armour. The Elisyces, Ruteni, Segovellauni, Vocontii, and Volcae Arecomisci are subjugated at the same time.

The Arverni become part of a Roman provincia as a result of their defeat. Congonnetianus (presumably the same person as one Kestaingos) is put in place as Rome's client king. This brings to an end their glory days as a powerful nation and allows the Aeduii and Sequani tribes, who have yet to be subdued, to rise in their place.

fl c.118 BC

Son. Roman client king. Also recorded as Kestaingos?

1st century BC

By the beginning of the first century BC, and perhaps for an indeterminate period before it, the Aeduii are at the head of a tribal confederation which also includes the Ambarri, Aulerci, Bellovaci, Bituriges Cubi, Brannovices, Mandubii, Parisii, Segusiavi, and Senones. Against this confederation in the contest for supremacy in Gaul are the Arverni, to its immediate south, and the Sequani to its east.

The Aeduii confederation is shown here, around 100 BC, with borders approximate and fairly conjectural, based on the locations of the tribes half a century later - it can be seen that the Aulerci at least migrate farther to the north-west during that time, although the remainder largely stay put (click or tap on map to view full sized)

fl c.70s BC?

High king of Gaul? Slain by his people.

The name Celtillus breaks down into 'celt' and 'il', plus an '-os' or '-us' suffix. The 'il' part is a diminutive. 'Celtillus' would mean 'little Celt'. According to Julius Caesar in his Gallic Wars, Celtillus holds 'the supremacy of entire Gaul' which, if true, shows that they are still one of the most powerful of the Gaulish tribes.

Caesar describes him more fully as a man who 'held the supremacy of entire Gaul, and had been put to death by his fellow-citizens, for this reason, because he aimed at sovereign power'.

In other words, Celtillus is slain by his own people because he aims to cement his rule of the tribe by establishing an hereditary kingship rather than obeying the elected process which the Gauls favour. His son is Vercingetorix, in Caesar's words, a 'young man of the highest power'.

c.72 - 58 BC

Brother. Ruler? Certainly a noble.

71 - 60? BC

In this period, shortly before the arrival of Julius Caesar and a sustained drive to subjugate all of Gaul, the Arverni win their battle for regional superiority against the Aeduii, subduing them in the process. Other subject tribes include the Gabali.

An Iron Age Celtic prince lay buried with his chariot at the centre of this huge mound in the Champagne region of France, according to the country's National Archaeological Research Institute

60? BC

Ariovistus is a leader of the Suevi and other allied Germanic peoples in the second quarter of the first century BC, and at least up to 58 BC. Displaying the interconnected nature of Germanics and Celts at this time, he is a fluent speaker of Gaulish, and one of his two wives is the daughter of Vocion of the Norican kingdom.

As recorded by Julius Caesar, and perhaps also by Cicero (who writes in 60 BC of a defeat for the Aeduii), Ariovistus and his followers take part in a war in Gaul, assisting the Gallic Arverni and Sequani to defeat their rivals, the Aeduii.

The reasons for the war are unknown, but they could be related to the Sequani hold over a vital trading corridor in the Doubs river valley which links to the Rhine. The Battle of Magetobriga results in a victory for the allies, thanks to the Suevi troops, and the Aeduii become vassals of the Sequani.

Ariovistus seizes one-third of the Aeduii territory in the Alsace region, settling about a hundred and twenty thousand Germanic people there. However, with the Sequani now at his back, between him and Germania, he decides to clear them out of their Doubs valley homeland. More Germanic settlers are introduced there, and a further third of Gaulish territory is demanded for his allies, the Harudes.

The Lemvig region of central Denmark was within the territory of the Charudes in the first century BC, offering them access to the North Sea, although it is not known if they were an especially dedicated sea-going tribe

58 - 52 BC

Son of Celtillus. Defeated, deposed, and imprisoned by Rome.

Vercingetorix's name is pronounced with an initial 'w' sound according to general Gaulish naming conventions. The 'rix' suffix on the end means 'king' in exactly the same way as saying 'King Henry', for example.

Rendered into modern English he would be King Vercingetos. This can be broken down into two parts, and the proto-Celtic/modern English wordlist has for the second part *kenget- (?), meaning 'warrior'. Therefore it seems that 'cinget' means 'a warrior'. The proto-Celtic wordlist has the first part, 'wer' as as 'werro', meaning 'raised'.

The order of the word elements is a little worrying though. Modifiers in Celtic tongues come after nouns, not before, as shown above with 'rix'. So 'wer-' is the noun. Luckily there is a parallel use in Welsh, 'uchel', meaning 'high' as a noun. So the man's given name would be Vercingetos, meaning 'warrior of the high (raised, exalted)' plus his title of king.

Celts in Britain and on continental Europe were well known for their ostentatious jewellery, with chieftains wearing thick gold torques like this example (front of picture)

? - 52 BC

Cousin and a commander of the relief force. Killed.

54 BC

The revolt by Ambiorix of the Eburones stirs up the Gauls, with anti-Roman sentiment strengthening in some quarters. However, despite the Treveri joining the revolt, it is eventually quashed.

Although the situation is calmed by this victory, Cavarinus of the Senones is condemned to death by his people and is forced to flee to the Romans for protection. This serves as a commitment by that tribe to oppose Julius Caesar during his Gallic campaigns.

The act seems to rally support from amongst most of the Gauls, except the Aeduii and Remi, who remain loyal to Rome, although the Gauls are unable to encourage the Germanic people to cross the Rhine and support them.

This is due to the recent defeats of Ariovistus of the Suevi and of the Tencteri expedition, something which has dissuaded them from a third attempt. Following the death of Indutiomarus of the Treveri, no further action is taken against the Romans in this year.

This print of Ambiorix, king of the Eburones, is inspired by his statue of 1866 in Tongeren in Belgium, with both statue and print reflecting the nineteenth century revival of the Celts in the young Belgian nation state

53 BC

On 13 February 53 BC the disaffected Carnutes had massacred every Roman merchant who had been present in the town of Cenabum, as well as killing one of Caesar's commissariat officers.

This is the spark which ignites a massed Gaulish rebellion. While Julius Caesar has been occupied in the lands of the Belgae, Vercingetorix has renewed the Arverni subjugation of the Aeduii. He has also restored the reputation of Arverni greatness by leading the revolt which is building against Rome.

Despite his former allegiance to Julius Caesar, in the winter of 53-52 BC Commius of the Atrebates uses his contacts with the Bellovaci to convince them to contribute two thousand men to an army. This army will join other Gauls to form a massive relief force at Alesia in the last stage of the revolt (this being a major fort which belongs to the Mandubii).

The Lemovices are also amongst the first tribes to commit to joining Vercingetorix, contributing ten thousand men. The Mediomatrici send five thousand men, and the Andes, Ruteni, and Turones are also amongst the first to commit.

The warriors of the Pictones decide to supply eight thousand warriors but their chief, Duratios, stands firm in his desire to maintain his alliance with Rome, and this difference of opinion causes a split in the tribe.

Organising the various tribes of Gaul into a unified resistance took some doing, but Vercingetorix of the Arverni appears to have held a level of authority which made him a leader not to be refused, and thousands of warriors flocked to join him

The warriors join the chief of the Andes who heads for Lemonum to besiege Duratios. The king sends a messenger to the Roman legate, Caius Caninius, who comes to his aid from the territory of the Ruteni. This small force is soon backed up by a more effective unit under Caius Fabius and a Pictonii civil war is averted.

52 BC

While Caesar is tied down in Rome, the Gauls begin their revolt, resolving to die in freedom rather than be suppressed by the invaders. The Carnutes take the lead under Cotuatus and Conetodunus when they kill the Roman traders who have settled in Genabum.

News of the event reaches the Arverni that morning, and Vercingetorix summons his people to arms. Despite being expelled from the town of Gergovia by his uncle, Gobanitio, and the rest of the nobles in their fear of such a risky enterprise, he gathers together an army.

The Aulerci, Cadurci, Lemovices, Parisii, Pictones, Senones, and Turones all join him, as do all of the tribes that border the ocean. The Treveri support the revolt but are pinned down by Germanic tribes. He sends Lucterius of the Cadurci into the territory of the Ruteni to gain their support, and marches in person to the Bituriges.

This print of Boduognatus, king of the Nervii, shows him and his warriors fighting the Romans at the battle of the Sabis, thought to be the modern River Selle

The latter, under the protection of the Aeduii, send to them for help to resist the Arverni but are forced to join the revolt. Lucterius continues to the Gabali and Nitiobroges and wins their support, collecting together a large force ahead of an advance into the province of Narbonensis.

Caesar gets there first and rallies the garrisons amongst the Ruteni and Volcae Arecomisci, and Lucterius is forced to retreat. From there Caesar circles through the territory of the generally pro-Roman Helvii (who provide auxiliaries) to reach that of the Arverni, despite deep winter snows in the mountains.

Vercingetorix, after sustaining a series of losses at Vellaunodunum, Genabum, and Noviodunum, summons his men to a council in which it is decided that the Romans should be prevented from being able to gather supplies.

A scorched earth policy is adopted, and more than twenty towns of the Bituriges are burned in one day, although their oppidum at Avaricum is spared. The Boii have little with which to support the Romans, and the Aeduii are showing little enthusiasm for it, but Caesar secures all the supplies he needs when he besieges and storms Avaricum, despite a formidable Gaulish defence.

This vast map covers just about all possible tribes which were documented in the first centuries BC and AD, mostly by the Romans and Greeks, and with an especial focus on 52 BC (click or tap on map to view at an intermediate size)

From there, the two sides gravitate towards an eventual confrontation at Gergovia, a town of the recently resettled Boii. Now the chief of the generally pro-Roman Aeduii, Convictolitavis, is free to end his equivocation and leads a force, not in support of Caesar at Gergovia but against him. The Nitiobroges also send troops to aid Vercingetorix there. Caesar loses the siege after having to split his forces to face the unexpected threat, a rare defeat for him in Gaul.

Labienus marches with four legions to the Parisii town of Lutetia. Gauls from the neighbouring states immediately gather to oppose him, under the leadership of the aged but still very wise Camulogenus of the Aulerci.

Labienus pulls back to Melodunum of the Senones, takes the town by force, and marches again against Camulogenus. The ensuing battle sees the Gauls defeated and Camulogenus killed. Labienus joins Caesar while Vercingetorix levies troops from the Aeduii and Segusiavi. These he places under the command of the brother of Eporedirix and orders them to attack the Allobroges.

The Gabali and the easternmost Arverni cantons are sent to fight the Helvii, and the Cadurci and Ruteni are told to lay waste the territories of the Volcae Arecomisci. The Helvii are defeated and their leaders slain, including Caius Valerius Donotaurus, the son of Caburus.

The Celtic tribes of the Western Alps were relatively small and fairly fragmented, but they made up for that with a level of belligerence and fighting ability which often stunned their major opponents, including the Romans

The Allobroges successfully manage to defend their frontiers, but Caesar finds that he is hard-pressed to counter Vercingetorix's superiority in cavalry. He calls for cavalry and light infantry from the loyal Germanic tribes (which undoubtedly includes the Ubii), and this helps him greatly in the battle which follows.

Vercingetorix, his cavalry routed in that battle, withdraws in good order to Alesia, a major fort which belongs to the Mandubii. The remaining cavalry are dispatched back to their tribes to bring reinforcements. Caesar begins a siege of Alesia, aiming on starving out the inhabitants.

Indeed, matters become so bad inside the fort that the Mandubian women and children are ejected (possibly in the hope that the Roman lines will part to let them pass), but Caesar effectively traps them in the no-man's-land between the opposing forces and allows them to starve.

Four relief forces amounting to a considerable number of men and horses are assembled in the territory of the Aeduii by the council of the Gaulish nobility. Demanded from the tribes of Gaul are thirty-five thousand men from the Aeduii and their dependents, the Ambivareti, Brannovices, and Segusiavi; an equal number from the Arverni in conjunction with the Cadurci, Eleuteti, Gabali, and Vellavi, who are accustomed to following Arverni commands; and twelve thousand each from the Bituriges, Carnutes, Ruteni (mostly archers), Santones, Senones, and Sequani.

The site of Alesia, a major fort belonging to the Mandubii tribe of Celts, was the scene of the final desperate stand-off between Rome and the Gauls in 52 BC

Ten thousand each are requested from the Bellovaci, Helvetii, Lemovices and Lingones; eight thousand each from the Helvii (despite the tribe's pro-Roman standing), Parisii, Pictones, and Turones; and six thousand combined from the tribes of Armorica (including the Ambibari, Caleti, Cariosvelites, Osismii, Redones, Venelli, and Veneti).

Five thousand each are requested from the Ambiani, Mediomatrici, Morini, Nervii, Nitiobroges, Petrocorii, and Suessiones; the same number from the Aulerci Cenomani; four thousand from the Atrebates; three thousand each from the Aulerci Eburovices, Bellocassi, Lexovii, and Veliocasses; plus substantial numbers sent by the Boii, Boiocasses, and Raurici.

Of all of these the Bellovaci withhold their contribution, claiming that they would wage war against the Romans on their own account, free of external command.

However, at the request of Commius of the Atrebates, they send two thousand men in consideration of a tie of hospitality which exists between them and him. Commanders are appointed, one of whom is Vercassivellaunos, who teams up with Sedullos of the Lemovices.

Together they attempt to relieve Vercingetorix at the siege of Alesia, but the combined relief force is soundly repulsed by Julius Caesar's remarkable strategy of simultaneously conducting the siege of Alesia on one front whilst being besieged on the other.

Lemonum (modern Potiers) was the chief tribal settlement of the Pictones Celts in first century BC Gaul, while today's Amphoralis Museum provides a glimpse of life in pre-Roman France

Marcus Antonius (Mark Anthony) and Caius Trebonius marshal the troops for the rearward defence. Sedullos of the Lemovices is slain, and Vergasillaunus of the Arverni is captured. Seeing that all is lost, Vercingetorix surrenders to Caesar. The garrison is taken prisoner, as are the survivors from the relief army.

They are either sold into slavery or given as booty to Caesar's legionaries, apart from the Aeduii and Arverni warriors who are released and pardoned in order to secure the allegiance of these important and powerful tribes.

During the revolt, the Bituriges Cubi fall back to their main oppidum of Avaricum. Although they put up a desperate resistance, their hill fort ultimately falls to a Roman assault and all its surviving inhabitants are put to the sword.

The Carnutes make their own situation worse by attacking the now leaderless and defenceless Bituriges Cubi, whom Caesar aids. As a reminder of their part in the rebellion, the Carnutes town of Cenabum is left in ruins and the location is garrisoned by two Roman legions.

Vercingetorix is imprisoned for five years in the Tullianum in Rome and Gaul falls to the republic. After the surrender of Alesia, Commius of the Atrebates returns north and joins Correus of the Bellovaci. The two men command the last major Gallic army to directly oppose Caesar, and for some time they manage to hold off the Romans until defeat finally ends their resistance.

The Vercingetorix monument was created by the sculptor, Aimé Millet, and was installed in 1865 on Mont Auxois in France

With this action, all of Gaul has been brought under Roman domination, and the history of its population of Celts and Aquitani is tied to that of the emerging Roman empire.

52 - 46 BC

Imprisoned heroic figure. Nominal Gaulish leader. Executed.

52 - ? BC

Roman client ruler. Details unknown.

46 BC

Following five years of imprisonment in the Tullianum, Vercingetorix is publicly displayed at Julius Caesar's triumph. Afterwards, back in his cell, he is executed by strangulation.

This removes the figurehead of Gaulish independence and with this action, Gaul's dreams of independence have been ended by Roman domination, and the history of its population of Celts is firmly tied to that of the empire.

During his long 'reign' as Rome's first citizen, Augustus brought peace to that city and oversaw its transition from failing republic to vigorous and expanding empire