European Kingdoms

Latvia (Latvija) / Livonia (Balts)
Incorporating the Lats, Lets, Livs, Sels, Semigallians, & Zemgals

Indo-Europeans - Baltic Tribes (Intro) Anatolian Tribes Balkans Tribes Baltic Tribes Celtic Tribes Germanic Tribes Italic Tribes Indo-Iranian/Aryan Tribes Slavic Tribes Tocharians (Intro)

The European region which today is known as the Baltic States sits at the junction in Eastern Europe with Northern Europe. While the southern two states of Lithuania and Latvia are counted as Eastern European, Estonia is more typically grouped with its Northern European cousins.

This Baltic country has historically also been known Lattonia, Lettonia, and Lettland, but for several hundred years it was submerged within a Germanic Crusader state called Livonia. Today the name of Livonia is still important as a description for areas of the region, even though it is no longer marked on any maps. Its core lands belong today to Latvia, with this state in Northern Europe sharing its borders with Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south - and both Russia and Belarus to the east and south-east. It is separated from Sweden in the west by the Baltic Sea, and the capital is Riga, a city founded by the very Germanic crusaders who conquered the territory during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and founded the Livonia state.

The Latvian territory was first populated around 10,000 BC, as the ice sheet slowly retreated northwards from the Early Baltics. The Indo-European proto-Baltic ancestors of the Latvian people, or Lats, settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea between around 3000-2500 BC, along with the Finno-Ugric peoples who had earlier settled in Estonia to the north (of whom the Livs were part, and all of whom belonged to a Uralic-speaking super-group). The Indo-European arrivals initially formed part of a general westwards migration until they split off and headed northwards. They further divided from the closely-related Slavic group around 2500 BC and went on to form the ancestors of the Latvians, Lithuanians and Old Prussians. These ancient Balts traded Latvia's renowned supplies of amber with ancient Greece and the Roman empire.

Various Baltic tribes could be distinguished by the tenth century AD. Presumably these had formed some time previously, probably centuries beforehand, as the Balts seemed to be relatively settled peoples. These tribes included the Lats (probably better known to the Germanic crusaders as Latgals or Latgallians), the Lets (Letti, Letts, Letten, or Lettigalians), the Livs (perhaps better known as Livonians, and the only Finno-Ugric group in this collective), the Sels (also referred to as Selonians), and the Zemgals (or Žiemgaliai - the Zimegola of the Russian Primary Chronicle). The last of these were also referred to as Semigallians, this being nothing more than a more international variation of the Baltic name. They were situated between the Lithuanians and the Lats in what is now southern Latvia. The neighbouring Couronian Livonians (otherwise known as Kurshes) occupied the north-western corner of modern Latvia. The main group of Livs could be further divided into the Gauja Livonians and Daugava Livonians. The Couronian, Selian, and Semigallian languages disappeared between 1400 and 1600, either being Lettonised or Lithuanised. Other eastern Baltic languages or dialects became extinct in the proto-historic or early historic period and are not preserved in written sources. Today only the Lettish and Lithuanian languages survive.

(Additional information by Leitgiris Living History Club, from The History of the Baltic Countries, Zigmantas Kiaupa, Ain Mäesalu, Ago Pajur, & Gvido Straube (Eds, Estonia 2008), from The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, David W Anthony, from The Russian Primary Chronicle (Laurentian Text), Samuel Hazzard Cross & Olgerd P Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Eds and translators, Mediaeval Academy of America), and from External Links: The Balts, Marija Gimbutas (1963, previously available online thanks to Gabriella at Vaidilute, but still available as a PDF - click or tap on link to download or access it), and Leitgiris.)

1st century AD

The Roman Iron Age is a relatively peaceful period for Estonians and what is now Latvia. Only a few hill forts of later periods have yielded some finds which date to this period, suggesting the few strongholds were used rarely and only in times of need.

The ancestors of the Galindians, Lets, Lithuanians, Natangians, Sambians, and Semigallians continue throughout the entire Early Iron Age to build stone cists in which they place urns of a family or kin, covering them with an earth barrow secured by a stone pavement from above and stone rings around. While available, Middle and Late La Tène fibulae are also imported and imitated. In marked contrast to Celtic and Germanic graves, however, weapons are extremely rare in Baltic graves. The inland Prussian tribes seem to live a rather peaceful life.

Other Baltic tribes are now developing their own distinctive burial rites. Sudovians build stone barrows, Couronians place their dead in stone circles or rectangular walls, while their neighbours in central Lithuania use flat graves supporting tree-trunk coffins with stones. The differentiation of local burial rites from around this time permits modern scholars the chance of perceiving tribal borders between the various Baltic tribes, which thereafter remain unchanged in this region until the coming of the Germans. Until then, there is no evidence of migrations, shifts of population, or invasions of the Baltic lands by foreign peoples.

5th century

In the first half of the fifth century, there is some evidence of a new wave of invaders in Lithuania. There is every reason to believe that nomadic hordes (either the Huns or a fringe group related to or vassals of them) carry out raids on the forts of southern and eastern Lithuania. Although Prussian tribes have returned westwards to reoccupy some of the lands previously lost to East Germanic tribes, they start to come under pressure from Slavs who are now migrating into what is now central Poland.

To the east, however, it is still largely a case of Balts integrating with Finno-Ugric tribes. Many barrows in these areas yield purely Baltic finds of the Let type. These date from the fifth to twelfth centuries AD. Even to the south of Smolensk, Moscow, and Kaluga, along the tributaries of the River Zhizdra and upper Desna, a number of excavated barrow cemeteries and hill forts of the Baltic type yield finds which are related or identical to those in eastern Latvia, and which can be dated up to the twelfth century. The archaeological finds also fully confirm a dating up to the twelfth century for the remnants of those Balts who live to the west of Moscow, in the area between Smolensk, Kaluga and Brjansk, the Galindians.

7th century

The Baltic tribes enjoy what could be termed a 'second golden age', buoyed by rapidly-expanding Viking trade networks which are reaching far the west and deep into Eastern Europe to establish contacts with the Eastern Roman empire at Constantinople. It's not all peaceful trade, however. The Vikings see the Balts as a viable target for raids, little realising at first how good are the Balts at defending their territories and even striking back at Viking targets.

The numerous Baltic tribes are currently ruled by powerful chieftains and landlords, a system which remains in place until the beginning of locally-recorded history in the region. Among the Baltic tribes the Prussians and Couronians continue to play leading roles. In the previous century or so, the Lets have expanded their territory to cover much of northern Latvia, replacing the previously dominant Finno-Ugric tribes there, the early Estonians.

900

Four Baltic tribal cultures have developed by this time: Couronians or Kurshes, Lats or Latgallians, Sels or Selonians, and Semigallians (who are for a long time troublesome border tribes between later Livonia and northern Lithuania). A Danish Viking onslaught had been launched in 870 against 'Semigalia', showing that they were also troublesome quite a bit farther afield.

Gutmanala, close to Riga (to its north-east), was an ancient cult site of the Livs which remained in use right up to the nineteenth century, while above that is a map showing a host of the many petty Norwegian and Swedish kingdoms in eighth and ninth century Scandinavia (click or tap on map to view full sized)

1106

The Lats, Livs and neighbouring Semigallians have conflicting interests with the Rus principalities of Polotsk, Pskov, and Novgorod, with the latter two making a number of raids on north-eastern Latvia. The first major setback to Rus expansionism is the disastrous defeat of the army led by the sons of Prince Vseslav of Polotsk against the Semigallians (Zimegola, according to the Russian Primary Chronicle). According to the chronicle, Rus losses amount to 9,000 men.

1170

Denmark is fast rising as a great military and merchant power, and it is in its interest to end the occasional Estonian and Couronian pirate attacks that threaten its Baltic trade (these are the Eastern Vikings, from Ösel - Saaremaa, the richest area of Estonia - and the later province of Kurland, respectively). To that end, a Danish fleets now makes an attack against Estonia.

1180

German Christian missionaries arrive, converting small numbers of Balts and probably establishing nascent congregations. On the whole the Balts appear reluctant to convert, perhaps fervently so, which means German Crusaders are sent to the Lats and their neighbouring tribes to convert the pagan population - a pretext for a grab for land and resources which is supported by the Pope. They are strongly opposed, although extremely little is known about the Liv native leaders who lead that opposition.

By about AD 1000 the final locations of the Baltic tribes were well known by the Germans who were beginning their attempts to subdue and control them, although the work would take a few centuries to complete and the Lithuanians would never be conquered by them (click or tap on map to view full sized)

late 1100s on

The Balts have come a long way towards producing contemporarily-modern feudal states. The largest or most powerful castle with a town has become the military and administrative centre for the tribal district. Five 'states' had already existed in the Couronian lands to be chronicled in the 870s by Rimbert. Now, at the beginning of the thirteenth century there are eight 'states' or districts with their own centres, each of which has several villages ('castellatura'). A similar pattern of separate districts pertains for all the other Baltic tribes. The more powerful feudal 'kings' extend their rule over two, three, four, or more districts. These 'kings' or chieftains possess the largest of all the castles. The most influential of them are called 'rex' or 'dux' or 'princeps' by chroniclers. The chronicles enumerate the names of the chieftains and even those of their subordinates. Power and land ownership are inherited.

The hierarchical structure of chieftainship is illustrated by the Chronicle of Volynia, which relates how twenty-one Lithuanian dukes come to sign the treaty of 1219 between Lithuania and the Rus of Halych-Volynia. Of these, five - the most powerful amongst their number - are 'grand dukes', while the other sixteen are dukes of minor importance. From this it may be deduced that Lithuania is now ruled by a confederation of the most powerful chieftains. It is quite possible that such a system of government is also in existence in the other Baltic states and has been for some time.

late 1100s

Liv chieftain.

c.1190s - 1200

Liv/Let chieftain in Metzepole (modern Vidzeme).

c.1200s - 1215

Liv/Let chieftain in Talva (Letgale). Burned by Unguenois.

The ruler of the district of Beverina in 'Lettigallia' at the beginning of the thirteenth century is Tālivaldis. He is described as being a rich man with much silver. His three sons are also rich, and possess many lands. He is one of the leaders of Let fighting against the Unguenois during the entire second decade of the thirteenth century. When they finally capture him they burn him alive. In reprisal, Lets capture and burn any Unguenois men they can find.

fl c.1200s

Semigallian chieftain in Tervete (south-west of Riga).

Viestarts is the lord of Tervete in western Semigallia. He is classed as a 'dux' and 'maior natus' and under his rule are all the lands of western Semigallia.

1219

Over the course of this period, North Estonia is slowly taken by force under Danish control. This begins with the arrival of a Danish fleet led by Valdemar II. On 15 June 1219, he attacks the fortress of Lindanäs. The battle is a hard-fought one and the Danes are close to admitting defeat when, according to tradition, a red cloth with a white cross falls from the sky, inspiring them to fight on and conquer the town.

In the same year the Order of the Knights of the Sword raid Vironian lands, aided by contingents of recently christened Lets, Livs, Sakalians, Ugaunians, and 'Jervians' (presumably people of the Alempois). The raid continues for five days, killing and pillaging Vironian people and settlements, before several elders request a truce. One admits - without having much of a choice - that he is ready to accept the Christian god. The other Vironian elders also accept Christianity and the German crusaders take the customary hostages in the form of the sons of elders to ensure that the truce is maintained.

? - 1244

Lat chieftain in Varka.

1244

The first 'Prince-Bishop of Riga' has already long-since been appointed (in 1186). Bishop Nikolaus von Nauen in Riga is part of some dramatic changes in the colonial order after 1248 which has already eclipsed native Latvian rule of the land.