Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms

West Seaxe (West Saxons / Wessex)

The Gewissae (a Saxon tribe descended from Gewis of Baeldaeg's Folk), landed on the south coast and began to carve out an area of settlement for themselves. This was traditionally in AD 495, where they were led by Cerdic, whose mother (and name) were British.

This straightforward version of events may just be a traditional form of telling a more interesting and intricate story. It has been suggested that Cerdic headed a British power bloc which, with German mercenaries or help related through intermarriage to Jutes or Saxons, staged a takeover and was able to set up a viable Brito-Saxon kingdom. K Sisam points out (in Anglo-Saxon Royal Genealogies, 1953) that Cerdic's pedigree has no independent authority. It has been put together from that of the Bernician kings and his real ancestry is unknown. He evidently could not claim descent from any German family of importance. This seems to strengthen the possibility of him having position and/or power within Romano-British society. Even the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle describes him and Cynric as ealdormen, a term normally used in ninth century England for someone who was a prominent official having authority, both civil and military, over a specific territory forming part of a kingdom.

It is interesting to note that the date of Cerdic's proposed takeover is very close to the approximate date of the heavy Saxon defeat at Mons Badonicus in circa 496. Could Cerdic have spotted the power vacuum that occurred with the loss of the Bretwalda's power and been in a position to take advantage of it? Given that, and the A-S Chron's description of his rank, it is tempting to think that Cerdic was the head of a partly British noble family with extensive territorial interests along the western end of the Saxon Shore who may have been entrusted with its defence in the last days of sub-Roman authority. Once that authority had faded, he could have decided to go further and assume total authority in the region.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle suggests that when Cerdic 'landed' (ie. decided to take over) in 495 a Saxon settlement existed around Cerdicesora and that Cerdic, 'within about six years of [his] coming... overcame the West Saxon kingdom' (between 495 - 501) (A-S Chron. mnsrpt. A Parker Chron). Whether or not the above theory is accepted, this took place at about the same time as the Saxons in southern Britain were defeated at Mons Badonicus. This could mean that Cerdic overcame the local territory and its British occupants, but is more likely an indication that the earlier Saxon and Jutish (Ytene) settlements around Southampton Water (neighbouring the Meonware to the immediate east) were bent to Cerdic's cause.

These Jutish settlements had probably existed for thirty or so years, and very likely had mingled with some Saxons who had been settled by the Romans in return for defending the Saxon Shore, plus some communities which may have migrated westwards from the Suth Seaxe. The lack of archaeological evidence in the area that is specifically German supports the idea that the kingdom was formed from elements who had already been partially absorbed into British culture. This mixing of various peoples is also noted amongst the Belgae on the Continent in the first century BC. Several tribes there are sometimes thought by scholars to be Germanic, although much of the evidence seems to suggest that they were either Belgic Celts, or were ruled by a Belgic nobility. The idea of the Belgae being a mix of Germans and Celts to some extent is firmly stated as being reported to Julius Caesar by the locals. It is a model that could also provide the basis for the foundation of Wessex. Local Belgae, who were perhaps already semi-German, fusing with German foederati in late Roman Britain and then with Saxons to form the population of the new kingdom, people who were sometimes known as the Gewissae and Hwicce.

As for the Gewissae in Cerdic's story, it seems likely that Gewis could have been a Thames Valley Saxon leader whose pedigree was later attached to Cerdic to give him a degree of legitimacy in the eyes of rival Anglo-Saxon kings. Whatever the politics of the situation in the Thames Valley and the West Saxon heartland of Hampshire, by AD 519, Cerdic had fully secured control of his territory and was proclaimed king of the West Seaxe.

(Additional information on eighth century Wessex by Mick Baker, and in general from The Oxford History of England: The English Settlements, J N L Meyers, and from The Oxford History of England: Anglo-Saxon England, Sir Frank Stenton.)

495

According to tradition Cerdic and his (young) son Cynric, together with Saxon and possibly some Jutish companions, land in five ships on the south coast at Cerdices ora (Cerdic's Shore, possibly the western side of the Solent), and begin a takeover of the local Jutish, Saxon and sub-Roman territories. The Jutes and Saxons who are already settled there are apparently already referring to themselves as the West Seaxe (possibly separate from the Meonware to the east).

The fighting begins on the same day as Cerdic 'arrives', suggesting that his potential power play begins in violence or immediate resistance. If Cerdic is in fact a Briton who rebels against the remaining central authority, then given his location he could be serving as a magistrate of the Belgae territory of Caer Gwinntguic until he seizes part of the tribe's territory in order to found his own little empire.

c.495 - 560

Cerdic (and later Cynric) begin the conquest of the territory of modern Wiltshire. The Wiltsaete (or Wilsaetas, Saxons in modern Wiltshire), appear to migrate into the same territory, either independently as a result of the decaying British defensive situation or as part of Cerdic's invasion.

Cerdic avoids the established British territories to his north and east which have already set themselves up on a defensive footing (postulated as Caer Gwinntguic and Caer Celemion) and aims at securing the more 'soft' territory to the west. Unfortunately, the British chieftains there view this as an invasion to be resisted by force in battles which provide incidents that are also recorded in the traditions of the invaders. Archaeologically too, the newcomers leave more conspicuous traces of their presence in settlements that do not initially merge with those of the locals, unlike in Hampshire and southern Berkshire, the heartland of their powerbase.

501

With the initial conquest of the West Seaxe complete, attention is turned more fully to expansion from the kingdom's Hampshire heartland.

A newly arrived Saxon chieftain and his two ships of followers kill a Briton of very high rank at Portesmutha (British Portus Adurni, modern Portsmouth, possibly the last surviving part of the proposed British kingdom of Rhegin - alternatively, the Briton could be Gereint of Dumnonia). The name of the Saxon chieftain appears to have been lost, as it has been conveniently recorded as Port in the West Seaxe annals. His sons are Bieda and Mægla (a probable British name - another of Cerdic's British allies?).

The Roman walls of Porchester Castle would still have been standing when this former Saxon Shore fort was captured by the West Seaxe

508

Cerdic (and Cynric, credited in name at least) defeats Natanleod's Britons. Afterwards the area is known as Natan leag (Netley Marsh in Hampshire, just to the south-east of Southampton). Could Natanleod have been a rival British chieftain (perhaps of Caer Gwinntguic) who is vying for power with Cerdic?

514

A West Seaxe band of Jutes under Stuf & Wihtgar arrives in three ships at Cerdices ora. Stuf and Wihtgar fight and defeat the local Britons, putting them to flight. Are these Jutes related to those of the Meonware?

519

After defeating Britons at Cerdices ford (perhaps Charford on the River Avon about ten kilometres south of Salisbury, Cerdic is declared king of the West Seaxe.

Cynric is variously described as his son or grandson in different versions of the West Saxon genealogy. Creoda appears between him and Cerdic in the pedigree of Ine of Wessex and some texts that used it, such as Asser and the Chronicle entry for 855. No incident involving him is noted in the annals but his name may survive in a minor Wiltshire place name, Creodanhyll. Theoretically, Creoda could have been Cerdic's son, and Cynric his son, or even a much younger brother. If it is assumed that Cynric was very young in 495, perhaps no more than ten years old, then the length of his involvement in West Saxon affairs is not quite so unbelievable. Perhaps also Creoda was illegitimate, a factor frequently likely to see an elder son sidelined in favour of a younger, legitimate one.

519 - 534?

Cerdic (Caraticos?)

Of mixed, Celtic-Saxon, parentage? Former magistrate of Belgae?

? - 534

Creoda?

Ruled jointly with Cerdic (possibly his son).

527

The Britons are again defeated, this time at Cerdices leag (Certicesford).

530

Cerdic and Cynric seize Ynys Weith from the Britons at Wihtgaraesburh, although this could be a later West Seaxe claim to legitimise their seizure of the island in 686. Perhaps the event in this year is more a confirmation of the Jutish ascendancy on the island from their Meonware homeland.

534

Cerdic is buried (according to tradition) at Cerdicesbeorg, a former barrow at Stoke near Hurstbourne recorded in an eleventh century charter. Wihtgar claims the kingship of the Jutish Isle of Wight.

The location of Cerdic's burial suggests he has been involved in some operations at the eastern end of the Wansdyke, where it terminates adjacent to the Roman road from Winchester (capital of the proposed Caer Gwinntguic). In 534 that location seems to have been within the northeastern borders of Caer Celemion, close to Caer Ceri's southern border and within touching distance of the Thames Valley Saxons and their Ciltern Saetan neighbours at their westernmost limits.

534 - 560

Cynric

Son of Cerdic (or Creoda according to W-S Regnal List).

552

In a memorable victory, Sorbiodunum (Saxon Searoburh, modern Old Sarum) is captured from the Britons (of the proposed territory of Caer Gwinntguic, which is probably totally overrun at this time). This gives the West Seaxe mastery of central Wiltshire and Salisbury Plain and brings them into contact with the Thames Valley Saxons. If the Wiltsaete were not already under West Seaxe dominance then this victory achieves that too. The generation of relative peace following Mons Badonicus is fast coming to an end.

556

Cynric and Ceawlin fight the Britons at Beran byrg (Barbury Castle near Swindon).

The result of the battle, fought very close to the site of Mons Badonicus, is unrecorded, suggesting the victory goes to the British of the three cities (led by Caer Gloui), who are quite possibly still using Ambrosius Aurelianus' stronghold as a base of operations.

This event is Ceawlin's first mention, making it seem possible that he is being readied for kingship by Cynric who (if he had been a child when Cerdic seized power), would be around sixty-five by now. However, elements in the construction of the A-S Chron text suggest that Ceawlin may not be a direct descendent of Cerdic's, and may even be a ruler of the Thames Valley Saxons whose family has somehow become united with that of the Cerdicingas (probably through conquest), although a level of tension between the two groups seems to remain.

560 - 591

Ceawlin / Ceaulin / Caelin

Bretwalda. A British name. Deposed 591. Died 593.

?

Cutha / Cuthwine?

Brother.

c.560 - 571

Expansion continues with Ceawlin and Cutha conquering the Ciltern Saeten (Chiltern settlers, Saxons who originally appear to have migrated into the area from the Wash).

In a new dimension to the formation of the West Seaxe kingdom, Ceawlin fights exclusively northwards of the kingdom's Hampshire and Wiltshire heartland. In several expeditions, not all of them successful, he continues down the Thames Valley, but by the 570s he is prevented from reaching Londinium by the East Seaxe, who are already beginning to govern this Middel Seaxe region.

These expeditions can be justified by the fact that the Thames Valley Saxons probably pose as serious a threat to West Seaxe security as they still do at this time to British security in Caer Celemion and Caer Ceri.

568

Ceawlin and Cutha defeat Æthelbert of the Cantware at Wibbandun. This is notable as being the first recorded conflict between two groups of invaders, rather than a battle against the native British. The location of 'Wibbandun', which can be translated as 'Wibba's Mount', has not been definitely identified. At one time it was thought to be Wimbledon, but this is now known to be incorrect. Instead it seems likely that the battle takes place near the boundary between Hampshire and Berkshire, probably disputed territory between Kent and the West Seaxe. It seems likely that the aggressive Ceawlin is securing his rear before mounting renewed attacks against the British to the west.

571

The Britons in the area of Biedcanford (possibly Bedford, near Luton) are defeated by Cuthwulf (one of Ceawlin's relatives). Four towns - Lygeanburg (Limbury), Ægelesburg (Aylesbury), Benesington (Benson), and Egonesham (Eynsham) - are captured. The valleys of the Thame and Cherwell are ruled by the West Seaxe, as is the upper valley of the Ouse. Cuthwulf dies in the same year.

This campaign has long puzzled historians, seemingly relating as it does to a much earlier situation when the Thames Valley Saxons were still establishing themselves in the area, and were only just starting to encroach on the southern borders of Cynwidion, a British kingdom that borders the area, with more Saxons advancing southwards from the Midlands. It has been proposed that its inclusion in the A-S Chron should be in the region of 441-471. The entry could be the sole survivor from a preface to the Ceawlin saga explaining how his ancestor Cuthwulf came to establish his rule in the Thames Valley. Alternatively, the campaign may be more or less correctly dated, in which case it is possibly one that is launched to regain territory lost to the Britons after the Germanic defeat at Mons Badonicus. If it is local Britons who have recaptured the plain beneath the Chilterns then it is likely that they belong to the kingdom of Cynwidion.

577

In a campaign that is identical to that probably adopted by Bretwalda Ælle almost a century before, Ceawlin thrusts south-westwards from the Upper Thames towards the Bristol Channel. The blow is delivered against the western Britons and is a complete success.

After losing a battle at Deorham (Dyrham/Hinton Hill, eight miles north of Bath), the Brito-Welsh kingdoms of Caer Baddan (Bathanceaster, modern Bath), Caer Ceri (Cirenceaster, now Cirencester) and Caer Gloui (Gleawanceaster, or Gloucester) are conquered by Ceawlin and another relative, Cuthwine (perhaps the long form of Cutha). The Hwicce, who may at first be under the West Seaxe aegis, migrate into the territory. However, it seems likely that Dumnonia or Glastenning hold onto the West Wansdyke territory just beyond Caer Baddan afterwards.

At this time, the West Seaxe seem to be less a single united political entity and more a collection of tribes who acknowledge the king as the overall figure of authority, but perhaps not someone they have to follow without question, as the frequent fights for leadership within the kingdom proves.

584

The Romano-British station at Viriconium in Pengwern is sacked, but Cutha is killed in battle at nearby Fethanleag (possibly Stoke Lyne in north-east Oxfordshire). Ceawlin takes 'many townships and countless spoil and returns in anger to his own', apparently giving up on the possibility of expanding the kingdom to the north and perhaps leaving the way clear for the Hwicce to establish themselves in the territory between the Midlands and the West Seaxe. Instead. it seems likely that Ceawlin starts to concentrate his efforts on pushing out the Dumnonian Britons defending the West Wansdyke, beyond Caer Baddan and in front of the Severn Estuary. But it also seems likely that this defeat marks the realistic end of his claims to the Bretwaldaship, and possibly robs him of vital support within his own kingdom (with the death of Cutha).

591 - 592

Ceawlin's plans to unseat the West Wansdyke Britons, probably by breaking through the East Wansdyke and taking them from the rear, leads to apparent disaster. His nephew, Ceol, takes the throne in 591 and the following year seals this with what appears to be the culmination of a coup, creating 'a great slaughter at Woddesbeorg' (almost certainly the long barrow now called Adam's Grave near Alton Priors, on the north side of the Vale of Pewsey and part of the Eastern Wansdyke), which causes Ceawlin to be driven out.

If Ceawlin is indeed a Thames Valley Saxon, then Ceol's act puts the West Seaxe firmly back under the control of the Cerdicingas, and also secures them governance over the Thames Valley Saxons. The Bretwaldaship switches to Æthelbert of the Cantware, who may be involved in the Woddesbeorg slaughter, as Ceol seems unlikely to be strong enough to achieve such a victory unaided.

591 - 597

Ceol

Son of Cutha.

593

Ceawlin perishes, along with Cwichelm and Crida, no doubt chieftains associated with him, and possibly members of the royal house (Cwichelm could be another brother).

597 - 611

Ceolwulf

Brother.

c.600 - 610

The sub-Roman territory with the proposed name of Caer Celemion is destroyed by the West Seaxe. The capital city of this territory is left deliberately devastated. Archaeological discoveries which include the skeleton of a dog and a beef bone suggest that the city is ritually cursed before being abandoned.

Ceolwulf, who 'continually fought against the Angles and the Britons' also clears the West Wansdyke of Dumnonians, consolidating the conquests of 577, secures control of the Thames Valley Saxons, cutting them off from their Middil Engle contacts, and invades the Suth Seaxe (in 607).

611 - 642

Cynegils

Baptised 635 by Birinus as Christianity is introduced.

614

Cynegils takes advantage of a momentary weakness in the British kingdom of Dumnonia and invades the eastern half. Possibly, this incursion weakens the Dorset and Somerset regions so that independent groups of Saxons are able to make inroads over the next generation, becoming the Dormsaete and Somersaete respectively.

628

It seems probable that the Hwicce have been dominated until now by the West Seaxe. Cynegils and Cwichelm his son fight against Penda of Mercia at Caer Ceri (Cirencester), which is within the territory of the Hwicce settlers. The fight ends with Penda dominant, although the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle fails to give details, and he and Cynegils 'come to an agreement'. There is little doubt that the agreement involves handing over Caer Ceri and the territory along the Severn.

642 - 654

Cenwalh / Kenwalch

652

Cenwalh makes a breakthrough against the Dumnonian defensive lines at the battle of Bradford-upon-Avon. The Dormsaete (Dorset Saxons) who have been slowly pushing against the Dumnonian borders now come under West Seaxe control.

654 - 658

Cenwalh marries the sister of Penda of Mercia but then inexplicably sends her back home soon afterwards. Penda forces Cenwalh into exile and controls Wessex at a time when a West Saxon becomes the first native archbishop of Canterbury. In 648, Cenwalh recovers his throne and founds St Peter's Minster in Winchester in thanks.

658 - 672

Cenwalh

Restored.

658

Dumnonia is defeated at the Battle of Peonna (Penselwood - the densely forested area on the eastern boundary of Somerset). The eastern half is permanently captured by the West Seaxe as they advance through the Polden Hills to the River Parrett (approximately forty-five kilometres (thirty miles) further west).

The Brito-Welsh territory of Glastenning (in modern Somerset) is probably taken at the same time. The Somersaete ('the Somer settlers') also now come under West Seaxe control (if they didn't already after 652), as does Glastonbury Abbey, which is allowed to retain its British abbot.

672 - 674

Queen Seaxburh

Wife of Cenwalh, probably ruled after his death.

674

Cenfus

Distant member of the royal family.

674 - 676

Æescwine / Aescwine / Escuin

Son. A West Seaxe nobleman who seized Seaxburh's throne.

675

Aescwine fights the battle of Biedanheafde (later Bedwyn, possibly Crofton but the actual location is debatable) against Wulfhere of Mercia. Aescwine repels the Mercians but is unable to gain any advantage from it. The Mercians in this period are a serious threat to the West Saxon hold over their northern provinces, and to maintain their prestige and revenue, they compensate by continuing to push hard against the borders of Dumnonia to the west.

The renowned West Saxon missionary to Continental Europe, St Boniface, is born just outside Crediton (in Devon) around this date, and later receives an English education in a monastery at Exeter, which is conquered by the West Seaxe around 685.

676 - 685

Centwine

Driven from throne by Caedwalla and killed.

681 - 685

The remaining Dumnonian Somerset territory is conquered by Centwine as he clears the western coastal area of Somerset as far as the modern Devon border. In a two pronged attacked the territory of the Defnas (Dumnonia / Devon) Britons is also taken by an army army pressing along the English Channel coast from Dorset to Exeter.

The settlement of Exeter as built by the Romans, although how much of it continued to be used under the Dumnonians prior to 685 is debatable

685

Æthelwalh of the Suth Seaxe is killed by Caedwalla before the latter makes his bid for the West Saxon throne. The Suth Seaxe territory is plundered before Caedwalla is driven off. In the same year, Caedwalla begins 'to contend for the kingdom' of the West Saxons, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. His name is an Anglicised form of the British Cadwalla or Cadwallon, which points to a (perhaps continued) British strain in his ancestry. The founder of the kingdom, Cerdic, had also been half British, although the fact that there are no other occurrences of British names in any branch of the royal family makes a direct connection unlikely, even though this is what is claimed.

685 - 687

Caedwalla

A British name. Ravaged Kent. Died 20 April 688 in Rome.

686

Caedwalla's short reign sees him attempt to subjugate much of southern England. A good deal of the Suthrig territory falls. Caedwalla places his brother on the throne of Kent as a sub-king. The Wihtware are brought under direct control, and the Suth Seaxe are also under the dominance of the West Seaxe. It is from this point, upon the conquest of the Jutes of Wight, that the West Saxons start to use the West Saxon name to describe themselves instead of that of the Gewissae, adding to the possibility that they had originally been based in the Thames Valley and are now moving further southwards to escape Mercian pressure.

687 - 726

Ine / Ini / Ina

Abdicated to go on pilgrimage to Rome. Died there in 728.

687

Ine establishes forts or palaces at Taunton, Somerton and South Petherton to secure the eastern Dumnonian conquests. The way and extent to which the conquered Britons survive under the Saxons is a debatable matter. However, Ine's laws make provision for them, albeit as second-class subjects, and it seems likely that they form a predominant percentage of the populace in the westernmost districts of the kingdom.

694

Wihtred of Kent comes to terms with Ine over the killing of the royal prince, Mul, in 687, and the two kings agree on the borders of Kent, Suthrige and the Suth Seaxe Together, the West Seaxe and Kent hold the line against Mercia in this period, limiting its ability to interfere south of the Thames.

710

Ine defeats and kills Gerren of Dumnonia, inflicting another defeat on his British neighbours to the west.

722

The Annales Cambriae refers to three notable 'Cornish' victories in this year. The opponent is not named but as the 'Britons were the victors in those three battles', the opponent is clearly the West Saxons. The battles take place at Hehil, Garth Maelog, and Pencon. The first has been the subject of much speculation as to its location, with many scholars taking the mention of 'Cornish' too literally and placing it west of the River Tamar. Instead, all three battles are likely to be in what is now Devon, close to Dumnonia's eastern border. The victories are hugely important, as they appear to win the Dumnonians and Cornish a century of peace in which to cement their compressed but surviving kingdom, and possibly ensure the survival of their culture and language much longer than might otherwise be the case.

726

By this time, the West Saxons control all the territory south of the Thames, from the borders of Kent and Suthrig to the Tamar. However, in this year, the South Saxons appear to reassert their independence.

726 - 740

Æthelheard / Aethelheard

A kinsman.

733

Æthelbald, king of Mercia and soon to be acclaimed as Bretwalda, captures the royal West Saxon vill of Somerton (capital of the Somersaete). In fact, the Mercian king spends much of his time harrying the West Saxons, turning the kingdom into 'little more than a large outlying province of Mercia', (Stenton).

740 - 756

Cuthred

740 - 752

Cuthred and Æthelbald, king of Mercia, enjoy mixed relations. As soon as he gains the throne, Cuthred attacks Mercia in return for the events of 733. Three years later, in 743, the two kings are allies in fighting against the Welsh. In 752, the two are again at each other's throats, with Cuthred putting Æthelbald to flight.

756

Cuthred's death paves the way for twelve months of conspiracy and murder amongst the normally competitive ranks of the West Saxon nobility. Sigeberht is driven from his throne by his successor, Cynewulf, and is assassinated by a herdsman in the forest of Weald, probably on Cynewulf's orders.

756 - 757

Sigeberht / Sigebryht

Driven from the throne. Assassinated in the Weald.

757

While his time on the West Saxon throne is brief, a possible brother of Sigeberht appears on the Kentish throne in 762-764, only to be deposed by Offa of Mercia.

757 - 786

Cynewulf

A descendant of Cerdic. Murdered by Cyneheard.

776

The clash between Kent and Mercia occurs a year or so after the flag of rebellion is raised, the respite probably due to Offa's entanglement with Cynewulf. Kent wins the battle, and the Kentish king reigns in complete independence for about nine years, probably in alliance with Cynewulf.

785/786

Ealhmund, a prince of the West Saxons as well as king of Kent, is killed (through circumstances unknown) and Kent is exposed to Offa's vengeance. The king's young son, Ecgberht, is whisked to safety with the West Saxons, his father's native people, but his protector, Cynewulf, is surprised and killed in the same year by a rival claimant, Cynheard, while on a visit to his mistress. On his death, his retainers refuse all offers of mercy and fight to the last man. His successor is soon killed by forces sent to avenge his death, and his retainers also refuse to surrender.

786

Cyneheard

Brother of Sigeberht. Killed by Beohrtric.

786 - 802

Beohrtric / Brihtric

A descendant of Cerdic. A Mercian dependant.

786

The young Ecgberht is soon ordered into exile by Beohrtric, who is little more than a cipher for Offa. Ecgberht takes refuge at the Frankish court of Charlemagne. Upon the king's death, he is recalled to accede to the throne and is welcomed by a people who are sick of Mercian interference.

802 - 839

Ecgberht / Egbert

Bretwalda. Heir of Kent. Spent time in exile at the Frankish court.

802

Ecgberht, son of the late Kentish King Ealhmund, proves to be a typical West Saxon king when he effectively destroys British Dumnonia (the West Welsh) at this point.

825

Ecgberht gains revenge for his father's death when he defeats the mighty Mercians at the Battle of Ellandon (Wroughton, near Swindon). He subsequently invades Kent and expels King Baldred, installing his son, Æthulwulf, as king there. The sub-kingdoms of Essex, Sussex and Suthrige submit to him. In the same year, the men of Cornish Dumnonia clash with the Saxons of Devon at the Battle of Galford (the first written record of the county of Devon in the Saxon form of the name). From this point forwards, Wessex is the most powerful English kingdom, always dominant over the others.

839 - 856

Æthelwulf / Aethulwulf

Son. Bretwalda. Abdicated (d.858) m Judith, dau of Frankish king.

851/852

A force of 350 Danish ships sails into the Thames estuary, sacks London and puts to flight a Mercian army under Beorhtwulf. In the same year, Æthelwulf wins a famous victory over Danes (quite possibly the same force) at Aclea (perhaps in Surrey), and then a great sea victory off Sandwich.

856 - 860

Æthelbald / Aethelbald

Son. Bretwalda. m his stepmother, Judith. Marriage annulled.

860

In what seems to be an overspill of Viking activity in the Frankish empire, raiders sack Winchester before making northwards to the Berkshire Downs, plundering and burning as they go. The men of Berkshire and Dorset are ready for them under the command of their ealdorman. The raiders, slowed by their booty, are cut to pieces where they stand, while the survivors flee.

860 - 866

Æthelberht / Aethelbert

Brother. Last sub-king of Kent. Bretwalda.

860

With Æthelberht's accession to the throne of Wessex, the position of sub-king of Kent is abandoned. Kent becomes a full province of Greater Wessex, along with the rest of the south-east.

866 - 871

Æthelred / Aethelred I

Brother. Bretwalda.

871

After laying waste to the great Mercian abbey of Medeshamsteade (Peterborough), Halfdan, brother of Ivarr the Boneless of the Viking kingdom of Dublin, leads the great Danish host into Wessex, making a well-provisioned base at Reading. Æthelred and his younger brother, Alfred, lead the West Saxon army against them and are defeated, the brothers barely escaping with their lives. Undeterred, they rally their forces and win a resounding victory on the chalk ridge at Ashdown, killing five Viking jarls and Bagsecg, brother of Halfdan. Two weeks later they are defeated by the Danes at Basing. Three months later Æthelred is dead.

871

Æthelwold / Aethelwold

Infant son. Superseded by Alfred during a time of Danish attacks.

871 - 899

Ælfred / Alfred the Great

Brother of Æthelred. Bretwalda. 'King of the Anglo-Saxons'.

874 - 875

By now the Danes have overcome much of the remainder of Anglo-Saxon England, including half of Mercia, and Wessex is virtually the only independent survivor. In 875, Halfdan leaves Guthrum in command of part of the army and heads north towards York and Bamburgh. Guthrum walks into the royal West Saxon burh of Wareham in Dorset, and Alfred lays siege and wins a pledge to cease hostilities. Hostages are exchanged and as soon as the opportunity presents itself, the Danes murder their hostages and ravage westwards until stopped again, this time because a fleet of reinforcements is scattered by a storm in the English Channel. The second pledge to end hostilities sticks and the Danes withdraw to Gloucester in Mercia.

878

Wessex faces its lowest point as the Vikings under Guthrum appear to secure control of it after sweeping across the kingdom from their captured base at Chippenham. Alfred, however, survives with the core of his army in the marshes of Athelney ('island of the princes'), where he builds a strong fort. Alfred is able to use his underground network of contacts to muster his army and strike a decisive victory at Edington.

Guthrum retreats to his stronghold, where he is besieged by Alfred and surrenders after fourteen days. Under the terms of the Peace of Wedmore, Guthrum accepts Christianity and is baptised by Alfred's hand. Guthrum returns to the Danelaw, where he rules what had been East Anglia, Essex, and eastern Mercia.

879

Following the death of Ceolwulf II of Mercia, Alfred shows just how much greater is his influence over the Mercians when he places his son-in-law on what remains of the throne of Mercia. Although Aethelred holds a king's sway he is known as the 'Lord of Mercia'.

883

There is some evidence of a siege of London by Alfred, and it seems that, by 886 at the latest, he secures the town. Ealdorman Aethelred of English Mercia (Alfred's son-in-law) is entrusted with control of it and 'Lundenburg' is immediately repaired, fortified, and repopulated.

886

Formal recognition is made in the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum of the Danish and Anglo-Saxon spheres of control (the Danelaw, which is controlled in the south from East Anglia, and Wessex, which incorporates half of Mercia, south and west of Watling Street). The treaty defines the boundaries of both kingdoms and makes provision for peaceful relations between the two peoples.

890

The Norse Viking, Ottar, reports his findings to King Alfred, who has his account included in the additions to the Universal History of Orosius, which the king republishes. The book is a shared work between Orosius and King Alfred. The Kven Sea is mentioned as the northern border of Germany. The location of Kvenland is also explained in relation to the land of the Norwegians and that of the Swedes.

892

In the autumn of 892 famine threatens north-east Francia. Vikings there make their way to Boulogne, where the Franks provide them with 250 ships so that they can cross the Channel 'in one journey, horses and all'. These heterogeneous war bands of diverse allegiances begin to raid along the English coast. One band, under the command of an experienced leader by the name of Hæstan, arrives with eighty ships at the mouth of the Thames and builds himself a fort at Milton on the island of Sheerness on the Kent coast. In the same season another host is at Appledore in Kent. But Wessex under Alfred the Great is ready. The king's system of burhs helps to pin the raiders down where they can be picked off, one by one. No serious damage is done.

897

Alfred experiments with warship styles for his navy. The two styles of choice are Frisian or Danish, revealing the importance of both peoples in the building of state-of-the-art warships. It seems that Frisian masters and crew make up a sizable proportion of the manpower of his new royal navy. Nine ships are involved in a not entirely successful skirmish in which three of the five officers who are important enough to be named are Frisians. Sixty-two of Alfred's navy are killed, Frisians and English (noted in that order). The Frisians and English are still one people separated only by an ocean, and speaking the same language with only dialectal differences (in the same way that the Britons of Brittany maintain close relations with the Cornish of England until early modern times).

899 - 924

Edward the Elder

Son. Died 17 July. 'King of the Anglo-Saxons'.

899

Æthelwald, the son of Æthelred I, is an ætheling with a claim to the throne that, strictly speaking, is better than Edward's. He launches a coup attempt with support from many non-West Saxon nobles, but it quickly fails and he is driven from Wessex. He takes refuge in York where the Danes receive him as king.

902 - 903

Æthelwald returns, arriving on the Essex coast with Danish support, either from York or from Denmark itself. He ravages west as far as Mercia. Alternatively called 'prince', 'elected king', 'king of the Danes', and even 'king of the Pagans', in 903 he is brought to battle against Edward in a major confrontation somewhere in Cambridgeshire. Many fall on either side, including Eohric, king of the Danes and Æthelwald himself.

912 - 913

Edward the Elder establishes two burhs in the borderland between Anglo-Saxon London and the Danish Kingdom of East Anglia in 912 and 913 as part of the ongoing campaign to reconquer the east. These burhs form the earliest basis for the later county of Hertfordshire, which is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1011.

914 (916)

Edward the Elder receives the submission of the Danish Jarl Thurketel of Bedford. (The Peterborough Chronicle, dealing with local territory, is regarded as more accurate than the ASC. Peterborough dates are in red.)

915 (917)

Edward advances to the Danish-held fortress of Bedford, taking direct control. Although Jarl Thurketel had offered submission in 914 (917), Edward wants to ensure his control is made effective in practice.

916 (917)

Thurketel is allowed by Edward to leave England for the Continent.

917 (918)

The Vikings organise a counter-offensive consisting of three separate strikes: a) an army from Northampton, Leicester and the North attacks the new ‘Burh’ at Towcester (from 24 July to 1 August); b) an army from Huntingdon and part of East Anglia under the Danish king, with Jarl Toglos and his son Jarl Manna, advances to Tempsford, where they construct a new fortress from which they launch an attempt to recover Bedford; and c) an army from East Anglia attempts to seize the new ‘Burh’ of Wigingamere in Essex.

The failure to apply a concentrated force means that the Danes are defeated on all three fronts. They lose a large number of men - particularly at Bedford, where a sortie organised by the besieged English garrison inflicts a severe defeat upon them and puts their army to flight. A local account recalls how the townswomen are instrumental in swaying things their way, when they rush out and attack the Viking force. Later that year (the following year), Edward attacks Tempsford and inflicts a heavy defeat upon the Vikings, killing their king, Guthrum II, together with Jarls Toglos and Manna.

Edward becomes overlord of East Anglia, and by default overlord of its dependent territory of Essex and the eastern half of Mercia.

924

Ælfwearde

Second son. Reigned for 16 days.

The Kingdom United (under Wessex)

While not generally recognised as being the first king of all England, Æthelstan was actually the recognised king or overlord of not only all of England, but of the principalities of Wales and all of Scotland too. It was he who united the remaining fragments of the country, including the Danish territories, he conquered the remnants of Dumnonia, and initiated the idea of the Anglo-Saxon empire. Only the fact that the Scandinavian kingdom of York regained independence after his death prevented him from winning the title of first King of England.

(Additional information by Mick Baker.)

924 - 939

Æthelstan / Athelstan

First son of Edward. United all English & Danes under one ruler.

924

Æthelstan ascends the throne of Mercia in 924 on the death of his father, and sixteen days later gains the throne of Wessex as well, following the premature death of his half-brother, Ælfwearde.

An illustration of Æthelstan from the 'Abbreviatio Chronicorum Angliae'

924 - 933

Edwin

Third son of Edward. Sub-king. Drowned on his way into exile.

927

Æthelstan meets with several northern kings at the convention of Eamont (near Penrith) and later meets with the Welsh monarchs, including that of Glywyssing and Gwent. All accept him as their overlord. Once he takes British Corniu, and ousts the Danish king of York, all in the same year, he is well and truly king of England.

928

The West Saxon kings are titled 'Emperors of Britain' (quite possibly following a precedent established by the postulated Romano-British High Kings in the fifth century and furthered by the title of Bretwalda under the Anglo-Saxons). The country reaches its apogee under the Anglo-Saxons, being one of the wealthiest, most learned, and strongest in all of Europe.

934 - 937

The grand alliance including the Scots, Northumbrian Danes at York, Dublin Danes, and the Welsh of Gwynedd and Cumbria (part of Strathclyde), mass their forces north of the Humber in a bold attempt to destroy Æthelstan. The plan fails, however, when the West Saxons and Mercians of the south destroy the alliance at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937.

939 - 946

Edmund I

Fourth son of Edward, aged 18. Stabbed to death.

939

The Scandinavian kingdom of York (comprising York and the Five Boroughs) breaks away from southern English control, as the eighteen year-old half-brother of Æthelstan gets an early taste of kingship, for which he is not quite ready. A fifteen year battle for supremacy begins.

946 - 954

Eadred

Fifth son of Edward.

954

Eadred becomes first recognised king of England when the Scandinavian kingdom of York falls to him. He hands the day-to-day governance of the region to Oswulf, high reeve of Bamburgh.