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European Kingdoms

Celtic Tribes

 

Cenomani (Gauls / Celto-Veneti?)
Incorporating the Brixii

FeatureIn general terms, the Romans coined the name 'Gaul' to describe the Celtic tribes of what is now central, northern, and eastern France. The Gauls were divided from the Belgae to the north by the Marne and the Seine, and from the Aquitani to the south by the River Garonne, while also extending into Switzerland, northern Italy, and along the Danube (see feature link for a discussion of the origins of the Celtic name).

MapBy the middle of the first century BC, there existed a cluster of Celtic tribes along the eastern edges of the Alpine region of what is now eastern Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and western Austria (see map link for all tribal locations).

There had also been a sizeable influx of Gauls across the western Alps, between about 600 BC at its earliest point and probably continuing into the first two centuries BC. The first century BC writer, Livy (Titus Livius Patavinus), wrote about this, and it created a substantial Celtic population across the north Italian plain.

This influx not only pushed out the previously-dominant Etruscans of the Golasecca culture-dominated north Italian plain (through at-least-partially documented warfare), but certainly also served to compress the predominant Ligurian population here southwards towards the coast. Similarly, the Raeti and Lepontii on the northern side of the plain were compressed into the foothills of the Alps (and, in the Raeti case, right across the central and eastern Alps). The Euganei may have been similarly compressed.

Part of this Celtic influx, the Cenomani were a relatively minor tribe which settled in northern Italy, between Verona (which they took from the Euganei) and Cremona. They were neighboured to the north by tribes of the Raeti, to the east by the Adriatic Veneti, to the south by the Roman republic, and to the west by the Insubres.

The Cenomani name appears to be a Germanic one. It seems to break down into 'cene' plus 'man' with a small Celticisation of the intervening 'o'. In Anglo-Saxon, 'cene' comes from 'céne' [ke:·ne] (adj), meaning something along the lines of 'keen, fierce, bold, brave, warlike', in other words, this group were 'the keen men'.

There is also a slight possibility that they were instead 'the kinsmen', but the proto-Germanic form of this is 'kun-', and its Anglo-Saxon descendant is 'cyn' or 'cun'. So 'keen' seems to be more appropriate, as in fierce or bold. Once again this name, as with several others, seems to present a Celtic tribe which has been taken over by a group of Germanic warriors.

Other such tribes include the Aulerci Cenomani in north-western France (and this particular Cenomani body was very likely a division of the Aulerci Cenomarci). Finding Germanics in command of Celts in northern Italy, however, would seem to be extremely unlikely, unless it was a very old influence, one which predated the Gaulish breakthrough into Italy between 600-500 BC.

More likely is the idea that this non-Celtic influence was instead an Adriatic Veneti influence, the tribe's close neighbours. The Alpine region contained various populations which had a complex, obscure, and ethnically-multilayered history. The Veneti had added to this with a seemingly proto-Illyrian heritage which itself may have evolved from an earlier proto-Italic West Indo-European heritage which itself had tentative early links with proto-Germanic ancestors.

The tribe should not be confused with the Ligurian Commoni, who are also sometimes called the Cenomani, but who occupied land to the east of Marseille. The Cenomani tribe's home was in the Po Valley, in the triangle formed by Mantua, Cremona, and Verona and immediately to the south of Lake Garda.

Despite it being likely that they were related to the Cenomani of Gaul, this is disputed. Even so, following their arrival in Italy they occupied an existing (and possibly ancient) settlement at Brixia (modern Brescia). Some modern sources seem to show them as the Brixii, perhaps based on the name of their chief settlement or a native group they either replaced or absorbed.

Cenomani funerary rites involved the placing of the deceased in a lying position in a pit, accompanied by a kit which consisted of weapons (swords, spears, knives, shields, helmets), and items of clothing and ornaments such as fibulae, torques, bracelets, rings, and armille, distinguished between male and female burials. The former would generally include weapons while the latter would sometimes have richer grave goods: torques and silver serpentine bracelets.

In tombs of the fourth and third centuries BC ceramics are missing from the grave goods, except in a limited number of cases. Rare but precious objects are decorated in characteristic Celtic-style forms. One somewhat controversial burial comes from an important Cenomani tomb which is to be found in the Mantua area, in Castiglione delle Stiviere within the province of Mantua.

This includes numerous bronze fragments, some decorated, whose function is still the subject of debate. One hypothesis suggests that they could be the elements of a carnyx, the war trumpet of the Celts. The bronze plates on this enigmatic object are embossed in a style which is characteristic of contemporary Celtic art.

Some graves contained deceased individuals along with dogs or horses, animals which were not part of the Cenomani diet. Strong emotional bonds must be assumed, although the horse was traditionally an important beast as fair as early Indo-Europeans were concerned.

The Alps

Principal author(s): Page created: Page last updated:

(Information by Peter Kessler, Edward Dawson, & Trish Wilson, with additional information from The History of Rome, Volume 1, Titus Livius, translated by Rev Canon Roberts, from Roman History, Cassius Dio, from Research into the Physical History of Mankind, James Cowles Pritchard, from Geography, Strabo, translated by H C Hamilton Esq & W Falconer, M A, Ed (George Bell & Sons, London, 1903), from Les peuples préromains du Sud-Est de la Gaule: Étude de géographie historique, Guy Barruol (De Boccard, 1999), and from External Links: Perseus Digital Library, and The Works of Julius Caesar: Gallic Wars, and The Natural History, Pliny the Elder (John Bostock, Ed), and Geography, Strabo (H C Hamilton & W Falconer, London, 1903, Perseus Online Edition), and L'Arbre Celtique (The Celtic Tree, in French), and Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz or Dictionnaire Historique de la Suisse or Dizionario Storico dell Svizzera (in German, French, and Italian respectively).)

c.600 BC

Bellovesus and his mass horde of people from the Bituriges, Insubres, and several other tribes, reaches the barrier of the Alps with an enormous force of horse and foot. This barrier is one which has apparently not previously been breached by Celts, and they make the crossing with some trepidation, heading through the passes of the Taurini and the valley of the Douro.

Gauls on expedition
An idealised illustration of Gauls on an expedition, from A Popular History of France From The Earliest Times Volume I by Francois Pierre Guillaume Guizot

Once across the mountain barrier, they defeat Etruscans in battle not far from the Ticinus. Bellovesus and his mainly Insubres people settle around the Ticinus and build a settlement called Mediolanum (modern Milan).

c.400 - 391 BC

Following the route set by Bellovesus and the Bituriges around 600 BC, other bodies of Celts have gradually invaded northern Italy, probably due to overpopulation in Gaul and the promise of fertile territory just waiting to be captured.

The first of these is the Cenomani around 400 BC, under the leadership of Elitovius, very likely a division of the later Aulerci Cenomani. They 'found' settlements at Brixia (modern Brescia) and Verona (the former seemingly already an ancient settlement and the latter perhaps being captured from the Euganei).

The Libui follow next, along with the Saluvii, both of which settle near the ancient tribe of the Laevi. Then the Boii and Lingones cross the Pennine Alps and, as all the country between the Po and the Alps is occupied, they cross the Po on rafts and expel not only Etruscans but the Umbri as well. However, they remain to the north of the Apennines.

Map of Alpine and Ligurian tribes, c.200-15 BC
The origins of the Euganei, Ligurians, Raeti, Veneti, and Vindelici are confused and unclear, but in the last half of the first millennium BC they were gradually being Celticised or were combining multiple influences to create hybrid tribes (click or tap on map to view full sized)

Then in 391 BC the Senones, the last to come, occupy the country from the River Utis (or Utens) to the Aesis (near Ancona, which marks the border between the Picentes and the Umbri in Italy).

It is this last tribe which Livy states comes to the Etruscan city of Clevsin (Clusium to the Romans), and from there to Rome, although whether alone or with the help of the Cisalpine peoples is unclear.

fl c.400 BC

Elitovius / Helitovius

Led a division of the Aulerci Cenomani (?) into northern Italy.

231 - 225 BC

The two most extensive Celtic tribes of northern Italy, the Boii and Insubres, send out the call for assistance against Rome to the tribes which live around the Alps and on the Rhône. Rather than each of the tribes sending their own warriors, it appears that individual warriors are effectively hired from the entire Alpine region as mercenaries.

Polybius calls them Gaesatae, describing it as a word which means 'serving for hire'. They come with their own kings, Concolitanus and Aneroetes, who have probably been elected from their number in the Celtic fashion.

Celtic warriors
While most of the Gauls of the third century BC fought fully clothed, their Gaesatae mercenaries tended to fight with nothing more than their weapons, and not even the trousers shown here

The Gaesatae are offered a large sum of gold on the spot and the wealth of Rome is also pointed out - wealth that can be theirs if they stick to their task. Rome has been informed of what is coming, and hurries to assemble the legions.

Even its ongoing conflict with the Carthaginians takes second place, and a treaty is hurriedly agreed with Hasdrubaal, commander in Iberia, which virtually confirms Carthaginian rule there. Such is Rome's haste that they approach the Gaulish frontier before the Gauls have even stirred.

It is 225 BC when the Gaesatae forces cross the Alps and enter the valley of the Padus with a formidable army, furnished with a variety of armour. The Boii, Insubres, and Taurini accompany them but the Cenomani and Adriatic Adriatic Veneti are persuaded to side with Rome, forcing the Gauls to detach a force to guard their flank.

Despite this, their main army consists of about a hundred and seventy thousand foot and horse, which petrifies the Romans and reminds them of 389 BC. As well as the four new legions, they are accompanied by Etruscans, Sabines, Sarsinates, and Umbri, and more Cenomani and Veneti.

Verona in Italy
Verona was initially the chief citadel of the Euganei, before they were forced out by the more powerful Celtic tribe of the Cenomani, probably in the sixth or fifth centuries BC

Defending Rome and its territories are Ferrentani, Iapygians, Latins, Lucanians, Marrucini, Marsi, Messapians, Samnites, and Vestini, plus two more legions on Sicily and in Tarentum.

The first battle, when it comes, is near Faesulae, outside the subjugated Etruscan city of Clevsin. The Romans are decimated and are routed by superior Gaulish tactics. A fresh army under Lucius Aemilius arrives, and Aneroetes counsels retreat with their booty and army intact, ready to launch a fresh attack when ready.

Consul Gaius Atilius lands at Pisae with the Sardinian legion and the Gauls find themselves caught between two Roman armies. The battle is fierce, and the Gauls gain the head of Gaius Atilius.

However, the battle turns against them and large numbers of Gauls are cut down or taken prisoner, including Concolitanus. Aneroetes is able to flee with his band of followers, and they commit suicide together.

Etruscan vessel in the shape of an ape
One of a group (another can be seen in the background), this Etruscan vessel is in the shape of an ape, made in the fifth century BC and used to hold perfumed oil

224 BC

Buoyed by its victory, Rome attempts to clear the entire valley of the Padus. Two legions are sent under the command of the consuls of that year, and the Boii are terrified into submission. However, incessant rain and an outbreak of disease prevents the legions from achieving anything greater.

223 BC

Two fresh consuls lead two more legions into the Padus, marching through the territory of the Anamares, who live not far from Placentia (some readings of the original text translate this as the Ananes and their home in the Marseilles region, which would be impossible given the nature of this campaign).

They secure the friendship of this tribe and cross into the country of the Insubres, near the confluence of the Adua and Padus. Some skirmishing aside, peace is agreed with this tribe, and the Romans head for the River Clusius.

There they enter Cenomani lands, with these allies providing some reinforcements. Then the Romans return to the Insubres and begin laying waste to their land. The tribe is faced with no choice but to fight, and their defeat is all but inevitable.

Roman consuls
Rome's republic was usually headed by two consuls and the Senate, but on a very few occasions the post was replaced, usually by military appointments

222 BC

With peaceful overtures by the Insubres being firmly rejected by Rome, the tribe calls on the Gaesatae once more. Together they fight the Romans and withdraw intact to Mediolanum.

The stronghold is stormed by the Romans and, following some hard fighting, the Insubres are left with no option but to surrender, their unnamed chief making a complete submission to Rome. This act effectively ends the Gallic War in northern Italy, as Rome now dominates all of the tribes there.

89 BC

Brixia (modern Brescia) is recognised as a civitas, a city of Rome, showing that the Cenomani have become fully integrated within the republican system and society.

49 BC

In common with the rest of the peoples of Gallia Transalpina, the Cenomani are granted Roman citizenship. Rome itself, though, immediately becomes preoccupied with a civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey, as the former crosses the Rubicon with his army.

Roman Brixia
Roman Brixia (modern Brescia) became a typical Latin city of temples, baths, a forum and a theatre, with its Cenomani population being thoroughly integrated into the empire

27 BC

Augustus founds a civil colony at Brexia and in the next few years he and Tiberius construct a viaduct to supply it with water. More building work further enhances the city, with a forum, theatre and no less than three temples being added.

Baths and a fourth temple are built under Emperor Vespasian in the later years of the first century AD. Following their inclusion into the empire, the Cenomani lands later become part of the kingdom (and then region) of Lombardy.

 
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