Near East Kingdoms

Zabalam (City) (Sumer)

Ancient Mesopotamia (Intro) Canaanite States & Groups Israelites & Israel Mesopotamian States & Groups Rome Syrian States & Groups

The city states of Sumer formed one of the first great civilisations in human history (see feature link). This Near Eastern civilisation emerged a little way ahead of that of Africa's ancient Egypt, and up to a millennium before that of the Indus Valley culture. It developed out of the end of the Pottery Neolithic across the Fertile Crescent, a period which had seen Neolithic Farmer practices spread far and wide across the Near East and beyond.

As irrigation improved so the more southerly reaches of the Euphrates could at last be occupied by humans and their animals. Southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and the western edge of Iran) was subjected to permanent settlement, initially in the form of pastoralists but soon as farmers too. Cultures around the edges of this progression included the Hassuna and Samarra which began this settlement process, and perhaps elements of the Hissar culture in the Iranian highlands were also involved.

By the late fourth millennium BC, Sumer was divided into approximately a dozen city states which were independent of one another and which used local canals and boundary stones to mark their borders. Many early historical events in the region are found only in the Sumerian king list, which notates the rulers of the city states (and see feature link), but archaeology has also uncovered a wealth of detail.

The city of Zabalam (or Zalaba, shown in written Sumerian as MUŠ3.UNUki), survives today as the archaeological mound of Tell Ibzeikh (also known as Tell el-Buzekh or Tell Ibzaykh). It sits immediately to the north of ancient Umma, with Adab quite close to its own north. The name Tell el-Buzekh was used by early archaeologists, while the locals know it as Tell Bzikh.

The city was located at the meeting place of the Iturungal and Ninagina canals around ten kilometres to the north-west of Umma. The Iturungal passed by Umma to connect to the city of Bad-tibira. For much of its existence the city was subject to whichever city state held pre-eminence in Sumer. Zabalam's chief deity was the goddess Inanna. Umma's chief god was Šara, the son of Inanna. Her temple in Zabalam was called the E₂-zi-kalam-ma.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323 BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007), from The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character, Samuel Noah Kramer ('List 1' of Sumerian rulers, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1963), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World, 4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Heywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000), from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt (Routledge, 2000, Vol I & II), from Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East, Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Enrico Ascalone (Dictionaries of Civilizations 1, University of California Press, 2007), from Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History, J N Postgate (Routledge, 1994), and from External Links: Evolution of Sumerian kingship (Ancient World Magazine), and Three Administrative Texts from the Time of Me'annedu, Armando Bramanti (The American Schools of Oriental Research, January 2017, pp 33-47, and available for download in PDF format), and Lagaš in the Early Dynastic III Period By Haider O R A I B I Almamori (University of Babylon, 2014, and available for download via Academia.edu).)

c.3100 - 2900 BC

The Uruk IV influence suddenly fades around 3100 BC (or 3200 BC in some modern sources) for reasons unknown. Local traditions re-emerge in places which had previously taken on board Uruk influences. Elam's advanced city of Susa experiences an influx of immigrants who introduce great changes there.

The Uruk III or Jemdet Nasr period in Sumer is one of comparative isolation (with the city of Jemdet Nasr supplying the type site). A new social structure is built which will become a fundamental part of the successive 'Early Dynastic' period. A host of early cities are mentioned at this time, on seals which are discovered at Jemdet Nasr itself. These cities include Kesh, Kish, Larsa, Nippur, Ur, Uruk, and Zabalam.

c.2900 BC

The Jemdet Nasr period fades in favour of a new, outward-looking 'Early Dynastic' period. True writing now blossoms as it moves closer to spoken Sumerian, archives explode with mercantile records and administrative acts, and the first kings begin to appear as leading city figures take on more duties and increasing power, ostensibly as deputies of the gods themselves.

Nippur becomes the focus of Sumer's unified cult practices, in favour of Ur. Positioned centrally in Sumer, perhaps this location is more satisfactory for the region's cities. All of them seem to be joined together when it comes to paying homage to the Sumerian pantheon of gods, headed by Enlil who is Nippur's patron (another good reason for making this city the religious centre).

This unique status lasts until the eighteenth century BC (which witnesses the rise of Babylon). Seals mention it frequently, even when they are found in small or obscure Sumerian cities such as Abu Salabikh, Arina, Kesh, Urum, and Zabalam.

c.2500 BC

Seemingly about this time, nearby Adab has a king of its own in the form of Lugal-dalu. He is not mentioned in the Sumerian king list (see feature link), but there does exist a single statue which bears his name. The style is very similar to statues from contemporary Lagash.

c.2425 BC

Urlumma of Umma drains the boundary canals of Ningirsu and of Nina, and destroys the protective shrines and the steles. Described as being 'as puffed up as the mountains', he crosses the boundary canal of Ningirsu, forcing Enannatum of Lagash to offer battle at Ugigga, in the fields near Girsu.

Urlumma is utterly defeated by the king's nephew, Entemena, and flees, only to be killed at Umma. Then Enannatum establishes a vassal ruler at Umma in the form of the priest Ili, head of the temple of Zabalam and priest of Ininni of Esh in Girsu.

fl c.2420 BC

Temple head at Zabalam. Priest of Ininni of Esh in Girsu.

c.2400 BC

Ili proves to be unfaithful to Lagash, instead continuing Urlumma's aggressive work against Umma's traditional enemy and its satellite city of Girsu. He drains the boundary canal of Ningirsu as far as the Tigris and close to the boundary of Girsu. The water is diverted to his advantage, and he takes a full storehouse of Lagash's grain.

Entemena, the present ruler of Lagash, has to declare renewed hostilities as the gods Enlil and Ninhursag do not permit such actions. Entemena fully restores the canal.

This leads to unspecified continued hostilities between the two city states which continue until Umma is conquered by Sargon I as he builds his Akkadian empire.

fl c.2400 BC

Son. Ensi (governor). m Bara-irnum to reunite two family strands.

fl c.2400 BC

Wife. Dau of Ur-Lumma.

c.2360s - 2330 BC

Me'annedu of Umma dominates Zabalam around the 2360s BC or thereabouts, during the twenty-eighth and twenty-ninth years of his ensi-ship, and possibly for the previous two or three decades of his term in office.

He is the father of the priest-king Lugalzaggesi who overthrows Lagash's domination (circa 2355 BC). Then he captures Uruk and Akshak (circa 2353 BC), and claims an empire which extends from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf.

Lugalzaggesi sacks Lagash and burns all of its holy temples, with the support of the priestly elite of Nippur. Urukagina flees to the town of Girsu, which does not seem to have fallen to Umma, and subsequently disappears from history.

Adab has dealings with Lugalzaggesi but whether as the city's overlord is not clear. Nearby Zabalam more certainly is under the domination of Lugalzaggesi. Umma's domination only lasts for Lugalzaggesi's lifetime, however.

c.2340 BC

According to the king list, Lugalannemundu of Adab receives the kingship following the fall of the 'Second Dynasty' at Ur. He is credited with extending Sumer's control to include territory from the Persian Gulf right up to the Mediterranean, bordering the Taurus mountains in the north, and the Zagros Mountains in the east.

fl c.2276 BC

Ensi (governor). Captured by Rimush of Agade.

c.2276 BC

Rimush of the Akkadian empire re-conquers a rebellious Elam and Marhashi, and fights hard to retain the empire. Adab has its governor captured in the second year of the reign of Rimush and the city's walls are smashed.

The same fate befalls Zabalam in the same year, and Ensi Lugalgalzu is captured. The king is largely successful in retaining his great father's empire, but his exploits are ended when he is apparently assassinated.

fl c.2276 BC

Ensi (governor). Rimush of Agade's unnamed replacement.

c.2250s BC

Facing revolts from the start of his reign, Naram-Sin of the Akkadian empire remains 'victorious in nine battles' because Ishtar is on his side. He conquers Ebla in Syria, defeats a coalition which is led by Kish, another coalition which is led by Uruk (when combined these coalitions include all of the major cities of Mesopotamia), and also attacks Nippur and the Hatti.

He and also his son, Shar-kali-sharri, both report the act of building a temple to the goddess Inanna in Zabalam, so the city is clearly active once again following Rimush's damaging attack.

c.2061 BC

Shulgi of Ur appoints the first governor of Umma from the family of Girizal. Although there must be governors before this date, from about 2112 BC onwards, their names and relationships remain unknown for now. These governors also oversee affairs in Zabalam.

c.1920? BC

Gungunum, Isin's governor of the province of Lagash, breaks with his masters and sets up his own dynasty in Larsa, although the reasons for this are largely unknown. To further frustrate Isin's rulers, he seizes Ur, cutting Isin's vital trade route and economically crippling the city.

The city of Zabalam has been under the dominance of Isin - as reported by the year names of several rulers including Itar-pisa and Ur-Ninurta. At a point around this time Zabalam falls into the sphere of dominance of the governors of Larsa (notably Abisare, for whom a year name reports the building of the 'Favourite of Inanna of Zabalam' canal).

c.1834 BC

Kudur-mabug or Kudur-mabuk, apparent king of an otherwise unknown Elamite state to the north of the Elamite capital at Susa, manages to install his son, Warad-Sin, on the throne of Larsa. Local cities also appear to be dominated by Warad-Sin, including Zabalam and (therefore possibly) Girsu.

c.1763 - 1750 BC

Hammurabi's Babylon attacks and defeats the Amorite city state of Larsa for its failure to provide any real assistance in the allied effort to beat back the growing threat of the powerful Elamites.

The victory gives him control of the entire lower Mesopotamian plain, which includes Nippur, Ur, Uruk, and Isin - and doubtless also Girsu and Zabalam (after which Hammurabi builds Ezi-Kalam-ma, the 'House of the Life of the Land' for the goddess Inanna).

The Elamites become vassals of Babylonia, as does Ekallatum, while Dilmun remains an important trading centre. Zabalam fades from the historical record though, relatively soon to be fully abandoned.