Near East Kingdoms

Old Elamite Period (Elam) (Western Iran)

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The city states of Sumer formed one of the first great civilisations in human history (see feature link). This Near Eastern civilisation emerged a little way ahead of that of Africa's ancient Egypt, and up to a millennium before that of the Indus Valley culture.

Elam was one of the oldest named regions in history, being located in one of the oldest civilised areas in the world, now within Iran (see feature link). With a small but important selection of city states at its core it also provided history with one of its longest-surviving states, or at least a series of states which, for outsiders, can barely be distinguished apart from one another.

The 'Old Elamite Period' marks the beginnings of the historical era in Elam as a replacement for the 'Proto-Elamite Period'. Relations with the flourishing Sumerian city states at this time mean a greatly-improved record of Elamite events. Three dynasties of kings ruled, with the last of them forming a short-lived empire. Primarily at this time it was two main cities in Elam which were seats of power: Anshan and Susa.

It seems that, at various times, these cities were ruled as separate kingdoms, certainly early on in Elamite history. However, Sumerian writings start referring to them as being part of a land of Elam, suggesting an element of unity, perhaps as a loose coalition of city states. The Simashki also appear to have emerged as a separate division, a state or confederation which came to power following the fall of the Awan rulers.

Late 'Early Dynastic' Sumerian rulers, such as the king of Lagash, campaigned against the land of Elam and its various states, probably in competition for trade routes which reached overland towards eastern Iran and the Indus Valley civilisation which lay at the eastern extent of this broad trading network.

The BMAC civilisation along the Oxus in Central Asia was also part of this network, although its interaction with Elam remains obscure. The descendants of the Jiroft culture on Elam's immediate eastern flank quite possibly supplied the foundations of the Marhashi state which emerged in this period and which quickly became regionally powerful.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City, Gwendolyn Leick (Penguin Books, 2001), from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World, 4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Heywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000), from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt (Routledge, 2000, Vol I & II), from Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East, Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Enrico Ascalone (Dictionaries of Civilizations 1, University of California Press, 2007), from The Archaeology of Mesopotamia, S Lloyd (Revised Ed, London, 1984), from Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History, J N Postgate (Routledge, 1994), from History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323 BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007), from Mesopotamia, Chris Scarre (Ed, Past Worlds - The Times Atlas of Archaeology, Guild Publishing, London 1989), from The Archaeology of Elam, D T Potts (Cambridge University Press, 1999), from The Elamite World, Javier Álvarez-Mon, Gian Pietro Basello, & Yasmina Wick (Eds, Routledge, 2018), and from External Links: Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, and Archaeology.org.)

c.2600 BC

According to the Sumerian king list, Enmebaraggesi of Kish subdues the Elamites, although this is not an historically provable event. Even so it is Elam's first potentially-historical mention, bringing it out of the realm of 'Proto-Elamite' archaeological investigation alone by adding increasingly numerous written mentions as part of the region's 'Old Elamite Period'.

Enmebaraggesi also becomes the dominant ruler in Sumer, in place of Uruk, and constructs the temple of Enlil at Nippur. He is the earliest king whose existence has been archaeologically confirmed.

c.2560s? BC

The name Û-húb of Kish comes from a vase which is excavated at Nippur, but this can be matched favourably to the name Enna-ill (or En-na-il - both are valid). This king claims to be responsible for having smashed Elam (or at least Awan), following which he dedicates the inscribed vase to Inanna at Nippur.

The 'Awan King List' is a compilation of the rulers of the Elamite city and kingdom of Awan, one which possibly was compiled as early as 2100 BC, although extant manuscripts are between two and four centuries younger (External Link: Creative Commons Licence 4.0)

c.2450 BC

Eannatum of Lagash extends his power to parts of Awan and the Persian Gulf, and the succeeding rulers of Lagash engage in contests against Elam for the next century or so.

c.2350 BC

Elam is reputedly conquered by Alusarsid of Akkad. At the same time a kingdom or confederation known as Marhashi is emerging to the east, on the Iranian plateau which is becoming increasingly important to Elamite power and Elamite trading outside of Sumer. The network of trading cities there reaches east to the Indus Valley civilisation.

c.2300 BC

Marhashi appears to become a dominant force to the east of Elam, but it is conquered by Sargon 'the Great' of Akkad after he has destroyed Urua (URUxA) and rampaged through Elamite lands. An inscription hails Sargon as 'king of the totality, slayer of Elam and Barahshum [Marhashi]'. Elam appears to remain tributary to Akkad for the subsequent century, so it seems likely that Marhashi does too.

c.2278 - 2270 BC

It is Abalgamash of Marhashi who is responsible for leading the forces of Elam, Kupin, Zahara, and Meluhha, (the latter a settlement of the Indus Valley civilisation) in a coalition against the Akkadian empire. This force invades the western reaches of Elam (no doubt involving Susa) to free it of late Sargon-period occupation and await retribution from his successor, Rimush.

After this rebellion, Elam has to be re-conquered by Rimush, and genuine Elamite history can be traced from this point. The state of Marhashi is clearly now a cohesive entity, one which borders Anshan to the east.

The Akkadian presence in Elam is maintained in Susa though the official language of bureaucracy, while local rulers carry Sumerian titles which reveal full Akkadian dependence - often ensi (governor) of Susa or shagina (general) of Elam, or both.

c.2240? BC

Both Marhashi and Kutik-Inshushinnak of Awan declare independence from Akkad - although perhaps not immediately as it seems that Elam is re-conquered for a time. When they do succeed though, they eventually throw off Akkadian language influences.

Before that, Susa's rulers do retain some autonomy. Naram-Sin of Akkad concludes a treaty with an unnamed ruler or high official there, and the document is written in Elamite, not Akkadian. It specifies no submission to Akkad but does confirm that Akkad's enemies are Susa's enemies.

The treaty could be a reaction to building events in the region which result in Kutik-Inshushinnak's take-over. He also conquers Susa and Anshan, forming a centralised and unified kingdom which is entirely outside Akkad's control. He still seems to retain Susa's Akkadian titles alongside his claim of kingship of Awan.

c.2210 BC

Marhashi overruns Elam for a time, and unites eastern efforts in fighting against the Akkadian empire. A battle is fought between the two states near Akshak, at the confluence of the Diyala and Tigris rivers. The Akkadian name for the following year suggests that Shar-kali-sharri of Agade claims the victory.

c.2200 BC

An indigenous Bronze Age culture emerges in Central Asia between modern Turkmenistan and down towards the Oxus (otherwise known as the Amu Darya), the somewhat nebulous region called Transoxiana. It is known as the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex, or Oxus Civilisation (in Bactria and Margiana). It trades and interacts to some extent with Elam and the Indus Valley civilisation.

c.2193 BC

Elam is overthrown by the Gutians as they sweep through southern Mesopotamia from the Zagros highlands, also destroying the Akkadian empire. The Simashki kings eventually come to power across Elam in the wake of this period of instability.

c.2050 BC

Shulgi of Ur extends his father's empire to include all of the Assyrian city states and their at-present non-Assyrian neighbours such as the Lullubi. He also re-conquers Susa from Elam and its Simashki rulers, and may be responsible for finishing off rebuilding work at Nippur.

c.2017 BC

The over-production of cereal around Ur has led to an increased strain being placed on the soil and a fall in productivity. The tax system has placed an increasing burden on an increasingly larger share of the population. An official under the ruler, Ibbi-Sin, is implored by the king to acquire grain in the north at whatever price is necessary.

On top of all of this, new waves of immigration into the region by Amorites add an extra layer of confusion and conflict. Ibbi-Sin's official, Ishbi-Erra, now takes the opportunity to move to the subject city of Isin and create his own city state there.

c.2004 BC

Long oppressed by the 'Third Dynasty' city of Ur, the Simashki ruler, Kindattu, together with the people of Susa, sacks the city and leads its king into captivity, ending the third dynasty and Sumerian civilisation.

With this threat removed, the land of Elam becomes a powerful kingdom under its Simashki rulers, although it is pushed out of southern Mesopotamia six years later by the Amorite city state of Isin. However, it does appear to hold on to Kish.

c.1970? BC

Under the stronger Eparti kings who replace the Simashki rulers, the Elamites swiftly rise to become a regional power, one which is contemporaneous with the Old Babylonian empire. They often threaten conquest both against it and the other Amorite city states of Mesopotamia, such as Isin. The Elamite state now fully incorporates the lowlands which surrounded Susa and also the highlands around Anshan.

Eparti Kings / Sukkalmahs (Elam) (Western Iran)

Under the stronger Eparti kings the Elamites swiftly rose to become a regional power. They were contemporaneous with the Old Babylonian empire, and often threatened it and the other Amorite city states, such as Isin, with conquest. Elam was more closely involved in Mesopotamian affairs than at any other time in its history. It incorporated the lowlands which surrounded Susa and also the Zagros highlands around Anshan, a bipolar domain which was reflected in the ruler's joint title of 'king of Anshan and Susa'.

The Eparti were also referred to as  being 'of the sukkalmahs' due to the title which their kings bore: sukkal-mah, or 'grand regent', a title which had been retained from the period of 'Ur III' dominance but which had evolved to refer to Elam's now-independent ruler. Next to him were officials who bore titles such as 'sukkal of Susa and of Elam'. This position was often held by the son of the sister of the ruling sukkal-mah. Quite often this nephew would succeed as the next senior sukkal-mah. The dynasty itself is sometimes referred in modern works as the 'Sukkalmah Dynasty'.

In some lists the Eparti are included as Simashki kings. Details on rulers is extremely sparse, and some names may not even be in the correct order.

Recent excavations (up to 2015) which were being led by archaeologist Behzad Mofidi-Nasrabadi of Mainz University at the site of Haft Tepe or Tappeh (approximately twenty kilometres from Susa) uncovered a workshop with an attached clay tablet archive which dates to this period in which the city is a prominent centre in the Elamite empire.

The workshop recorded the expansion of commerce, arts, and crafts. Physical evidence of this prosperity includes lavish grave goods that have been found in the tomb of a female official, and a well-crafted female figurine. Elam in the eighteenth century BC became a major player in Mesopotamian politics. Largely this was due to the fact that it controlled the vital tin trade from the Iranian plateau in the east. Elam was also in close contact with Dilmun in the Persian Gulf, although this dominance was ephemeral.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from the Book of Jubilees (otherwise known as the Lesser Genesis (Leptogenesis), by unknown ancient Jewish religious authors), from Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City, Gwendolyn Leick (Penguin Books, 2001), from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from Political Change and Cultural Continuity in Eshnunna from the Ur III to the Old Babylonian Period, Clemens Reichel (Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at the University of Chicago, 11 June 1996), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World, 4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Heywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000), from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt (Routledge, 2000, Vol I & II), from Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East, Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Enrico Ascalone (Dictionaries of Civilizations 1, University of California Press, 2007), from Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History, J N Postgate (Routledge, 1994), from The First Empires, J N Postgate (Oxford 1977), from History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323 BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007), from Mesopotamia, Chris Scarre (Ed, Past Worlds - The Times Atlas of Archaeology, Guild Publishing, London 1989), from The Age of the God-Kings, Kit van Tulleken (Ed, Time Life Books, Amsterdam 1987), and from External Links: Archaeology.org, and International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia Online, and Ancient Worlds, and Ancient History, Anthony Michael Love (Sarissa.org).)

fl c.1970 BC

King in Anshan. Superseded the Simashki kings.

c.1920? BC

Isin suddenly and rapidly begins to decline. The precise events are not known but, around this time, Gungunum, Isin's governor of the province of Lagash (and apparently based at Larsa), seizes Ur. This move cuts Isin's vital trade route, economically crippling the city. It also loosens Isin's previously iron control over the entire region.

c.1904 - 1866 BC

Gungunum's two successors at Ur seek to cut off Isin's access to water by rerouting canals to Larsa. Nippur is also lost around this time, Kazallu seemingly follows suit at some point around 1900 BC, and Uruk breaks away around 1865 BC.

Eshnunna's kings regularly use the title of 'king' from the end of the 1900s, and sometimes deify themselves as god-kings. The old title of ensi is dropped, perhaps because Isin is no longer all-dominant in the north of Sumer.

fl bef c.1850 BC

c.1850s? BC

Tribal ruler of an Elamite state north of Susa? In Zagros mountains?

c.1835 BC

Son and king. Captured Larsa.

c.1835 BC

Kudur-mabug or Kudur-mabuk, apparent king of an otherwise unknown Elamite state to the north, manages to install his son, Warad-Sin, on the throne of Larsa. Warad-Sin's brother appears to be one Eri-Aku, and he briefly succeeds to the same throne before being succeeded by another brother, Rim-Sin (I).

fl after c.1830 BC

fl c.1792 BC

c.1772 - 1763 BC

c.1770? - 1765 BC

Elam apparently takes control of the city of Apum after the fall of the kingdom of 'Upper Mesopotamia'. Elamite rule is eventually thrown out when the city of Andarig takes control there.

c.1763 BC

Following an attempted invasion the previous year (during which Ekallatum is conquered by Elam), the Elamites are defeated in southern Mesopotamia by Hammurabi's Babylonian empire, and the kingdom begins a period of vassalage to Babylon.

It keeps its own kings though, and maintains close contacts with important centres such as Dilmun, although the region's previous political unity is probably shattered.

c.1763 - 1745 BC

For a time the most powerful ruler in the area.

c.1750 BC

Chedorlaomer or Kedorlaomer of the Bible. Existence unconfirmed.

c.1750 BC

Shinar, or Sennaar, is equated with Babylon, making the king identifiable with Hammurabi, although this theory appears to be falling out of favour with many scholars.

King Amraphel of Shinar is allied with 'Chedorlaomer' of Elam, plus 'Arioch of Ellasar' (originally thought to be Rim-Sin of Larsa, but now thought more likely to be the early Hurrian King Ariukki), and 'Tidal, king of nations' (probably the Hittite king, Tudhaliya I).

Together they attack the early Israelites during a general conflict. After twelve years of paying tribute, several Canaanite 'cities of the plain' rebel but are quickly brought back into line. Chedorlaomer (Kedorlaomer, or Kedor-Laomer) also attacks the Rephaim and defeats them, while the Horites are said to be members of the coalition which includes Sodom and Gomorrah, and they are similarly defeated.

c.1745 - 1730 BC

c.1732 BC

Elam loses control of Kish to the kings of Sealand.

c.1730 - 1700 BC

c.1700 BC

The Indus Valley civilisation dies out, alongside a similar fading for the Oxus civilisation (the BMAC). Its people disperse into the Indian sub-continent, with the sea port at Lothal continuing to flourish for a time before also being abandoned. This no doubt also tips the trading culture into decline on the Iranian plateau and damages Elam's prosperity.

c.1700 - 1698 BC

c.1698 - 1690 BC

c.1690 - 1655 BC

c.1655 - 1650 BC

c.1650 - 1635 BC

c.1635 - 1625 BC

c.1625 - 1605 BC

c.1605 - 1600 BC

c.1600 - 1580 BC

c.1595 BC

It appears that at the same time as they take control in Babylon, the Kassites are able to devastate Elam. The final stages of (non-continuous) occupation of Chogha Mish end with the Eparti-era fort here being abandoned. Elam slides into gradual obscurity.

c.1580 - 1570 BC

c.1570 - 1545 BC

c.1545 - 1520 BC

c.1520 - 1505 BC

Plundered the temples of Amorite Akkad.

c.1505 - ? BC

c.1500 BC

Perhaps due in part (at least) to the devastation of Elam of a century before, the kingdom has entered a long, slow decline into obscurity at the start of the 'Middle Elamite Period'.