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Near East Kingdoms

Ancient Mesopotamia

 

Ashur / Assur / Asshur (City) (Northern Mesopotamia)

FeatureIn southern Mesopotamia the city states of Sumer formed one of the first great civilisations in human history (see feature link). This Near Eastern civilisation developed out of the end of the Pottery Neolithic across the Fertile Crescent, a period which had seen Neolithic Farmer practices spread far and wide across the Near East and beyond.

As irrigation improved so the more southerly reaches of the Euphrates could at last be occupied by humans and their animals, with permanent settlements arising from the sixth millennium BC. Initially these were pastoralist settlements, but soon farming villages appeared and they gradually grew and improved. At the same time, northern Mesopotamia experienced its own burgeoning development processes, largely starting under the Hassuna culture.

These processes took longer here than they did in the south, in what is now northern Iraq, the western edge of Iran, the south-eastern corner of Turkey, and the eastern wedge of Syria. An urban lifestyle only really appeared in the third millennium BC, thanks in part to such influences being imposed during Sumerian empire-building periods. Archaeology has uncovered a wealth of detail about settlements in this region, but many more sites remain to be examined.

The Assyrians were descended in part from Semitic-speakers who migrated into the northern regions of Mesopotamia from at least 3000 BC. They met the indigenous Neolithic population in the region, which probably included similarly newly-arrived Hurrians, and either blended with them or replaced them to form the later Assyrian identity.

Their adopted home at Nineveh is at least nine thousand years old, while the other two great Assyrian cities, Ashur and Arbel, were founded soon after the arrival of Semitic-speakers - in the mid-third millennium BC. All three were located on the limestone plateau of northern Mesopotamia, near a mountainous region which extends along the Tigris as far as the high Gordiaean or Carduchian mountain range of Armenia, which is sometimes known as the 'Mountains of Ashur'.

Ashur and Nineveh were sacred sites, with the former being the seat of the eponymous god Ashur (a name borne by a large number of Assyrian kings) and the latter being dedicated to Ishtar, the goddess of love and war. Archaeological evidence has revealed the complexities of Ashur's architectural sequences in the modern mound of Qalat Sherqat, while tablet collections tell about early Assyrian trading connections, the careers of kings, and much about religious practices and rituals in the temples.

The city was built on a rocky limestone cliff which forced the fast-flowing Tigris into a sharp curve. The main stream was also joined in antiquity by a side-arm so that an oval-shaped island was created which had a shoreline of 1.8 kilometres. Steep-sided rocky outcrops rose some twenty-five metres above the valley floor. This formed a strategically important site which was comparatively easy to defend.

It also formed a recognisable landmark which had wide views over the valley below it. Fertile land to the north was suitable for ploughing while the steppe of the Jazirah lay to the west. The city sat between the two rivers Zab, being closer to the Lesser Zab than the Greater Zab, while nearby was an important pass through the Zagros Mountains which provided access to the Iranian plateau.

The temple of Ashur occupied the highest part of the cliff, in its north-eastern corner where the rocky plateau forms an extended oval. It was rectangular, 110 metres in length and sixty metres wide, with two successive courts which were connected by a ramp to cope with the two-metre change in level. Those courts were paved with burnt bricks, surrounded by a row of chambers which were carefully structured with recesses and niches.

Following the destruction of the Assyrian empire, Ashur remained abandoned for five hundred years. Then the Parthians established a presence at 'Assor', complete with palace and buildings in the Hellenistic style. After their replacement by the Sassanids, the area was largely abandoned.

During the nineteenth century AD, this region was a backwater of the Ottoman empire. It came to the attention in 1821 of the British consulate-general, Claudius James Rich, who published an account of his findings. Minor excavations took place in 1840 and 1847 but, despite some impressive finds, the British and French concentrated on sites which were closer to Mosul. German imperial excavations took a keener interest between 1903-1913, but the investigations were poorly handled.

The Old Testament claims one Asshur as a son of Shem, ancestor of the Israelites, and founder figure of Ashur. The two, Israelites and Assyrians, shared a Semitic heritage so attempting to link them together in a near-mythical list of ancestors was a valid enough exercise.

During the eighteenth century BC the early Israelite founders were living within the environs of Ur in southern Mesopotamia but their origins before that are entirely unknown. A little way to Ashur's south was the city of Ekallatum. Often a rival prior to the rise of the Neo-Assyrian empire, it sometimes dominated Ashur.

Mesopotamia

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Wayne McCleese (regarding the list of Abraham's ancestors), from Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City, Gwendolyn Leick (Penguin Books, 2001), from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from Political Change and Cultural Continuity in Eshnunna from the Ur III to the Old Babylonian Period, Clemens Reichel (Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at the University of Chicago, 11 June 1996), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World, 4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Heywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000), from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt (Routledge, 2000, Vol I & II), from Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East, Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Enrico Ascalone (Dictionaries of Civilizations 1, University of California Press, 2007), from Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History, J N Postgate (Routledge, 1994), from The First Empires, J N Postgate (Oxford 1977), from History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323 BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007), from Mesopotamia, Chris Scarre (Ed, Past Worlds - The Times Atlas of Archaeology, Guild Publishing, London 1989), from The Age of the God-Kings, Kit van Tulleken (Ed, Time Life Books, Amsterdam 1987), from History & Philology, Walther Sallaberger & Ingo Schrakamp (Eds, Arcane III, Brepols, 2015), and from External Links: Ancient Worlds, and Ancient History, Anthony Michael Love (Sarissa.org).)

c.2900 BC

A sanctuary is founded on its protected rocky site near the Tigris towards the beginning of the 'Early Dynastic' period in Mesopotamia (2900-2800 BC). Possibly this is by the Hurrians who are only just beginning to settle in the eastern Tigris area. The sanctuary at what will eventually be Ashur may be for a female deity, with similarities to those of contemporary cities such as Mari and Eshnunna.

c.2600 - 2200 BC

FeatureBy this date, Sumerian civilisation in the south is at its height. Although their creation is later than those of Sumer, the early Akkaddian or Amorite city states of the north are less well attested, and many of them are only known from later writings (and see feature link).

Those which can be identified by name include Apum, Ashnakkum (modern Tell Chagar Bazar), Nawar, and Urkesh in the Khabur region of what is now north-eastern Syria, Harran, Mari and Terqa along the Euphrates, Kunara of the Lullubi in modern Kurdistan, and Arbel, Ashur, and Nineveh in the east (the early Assyrians). These states are in contact with each other through diplomatic and commercial means.

Some of these centres in northern, or upper, Mesopotamia - Mari, and Nawar - seem to be able to impose their will on surrounding states, but many of the details of their military actions are unknown.

c.2360 BC

It appears that the later author of the Assyrian King List wants to create the impression that early Assyrian rulers - the 'Kings Who Lived in Tents' - with their rhyming, invented names, are nomad kings, whereas the Assyrian city states are already well established, including Ashur, Arbel, and Nineveh.

fl c.2350? BC

Tudiya / Tudia

King of Ashur. Early Assyrian. Overthrown by Akkadians?

c.2350 BC

It is Sargon of Agade who allegedly founds that city and then creates the Akkadian empire. He quickly subdues Mesopotamia (Sumer and Agade, plus a wide swathe of northern Mesopotamia which includes Ashur, Arbel, and Nineveh).

Enshakushanna of Uruk has already achieved a similar area of conquest in the mid-twenty-fifth century BC, predating the Sargonite empire. By this time the formerly-female-deity sanctuary at Ashur has been rededicated to Ashur himself.

c.2330? BC

The city of Ebla breaks with tradition when King Eberu founds a (short-lived) hereditary monarchy. He concludes a treaty with Tudia of Ashur which offers him the use of an official trading post over which Ebla will maintain control. Ebla now reaches the height of its prosperity, trading reach, and political supremacy.

fl c.2200? BC

Ititi

Ruler of Ashur.

c.2200 - 2190 BC

With Akkad declining markedly (and especially so after the death of Naram-Sin), Elam and Marhashi declare their independence (although they are again re-conquered for a time). Ititi of Ashur raids Gasur, an unthinkable act if Akkad truly governs there with any firmness.

c.2060s BC

The sons of Shem of the Israelites are said to be Arphaxad, Elam, Ashur, Lud, and Aram. While the first name is of uncertain origin (and therefore possibly genuine), the others are clearly attempts to create founder figures for several important ancient kingdoms.

Elam relates to the land of that name, and an important and powerful kingdom at this time. Ashur is the name of a northern Mesopotamian city state - one of three - which together are better known as Assyria.

Ninevite 5 pottery
Ninevite 5 pottery belonged to a distinctive culture which dates from 2800-2400 BC and immediately predates the era of the Assyrian kings who lived in tents

Lud is connected with Lydia (the Luddu of Assyrian records) and their Luwian predecessors (although the Assyrian Lubdu in areas of western Media may be a better connection). Aram is the father of Uz ben Shem, a founder figure for Damascus.

fl c.2040s BC

?

Unnamed šakkanakkum (chief magistrate) for Ur.

c.2046 BC

The temple of Ashur has been destroyed, perhaps during the Gutian invasion of northern Mesopotamia. Now the temple is rebuilt on the same site by an unnamed governor of Amar-Sin of Ur.

It has the same layout but thicker walls and slightly larger proportions. There is a wealthy population visiting the temple at this time but archaeology is yet to indicate the size of the settlement.

FeatureSumerian influence on Ashur is likely to be fundamental and intensely formative at this time, although little is recorded to acknowledge that influence. An Assyrian version of the Sumerian flood epic is created however, with Ashur replacing Marduk (see the Sumerian king list feature for more).

c.2004 BC

The waning Sumerian civilisation which has at its centre the city of Ur collapses entirely when the Elamite ruler, Kindattu, together with Simashki and the people of Susa, sacks the city and captures Ibbi-Sin. Various regional cities soon establish themselves as petty states - including Ashur - and a good deal of regional chaos takes place over the next century or so.

fl c.2000s - 1980s BC

Zariqum

Šakkanakkum (chief magistrate) (for Ur?).

c.2000 BC

The Assyrians establish a trading colony at Kanesh, which may well be within Hattian territorial boundaries, as well as another in Hattusa itself, the Hatti capital.

Findings of royal seals with the name of Ibbi-Sin of Ur also suggests that there may be a Sumerian presence here from at least 2025 BC, in which case Zariqum, chief magistrate at Ashur, may direct it until he is (potentially) removed by Kikkia. The local Kütepe period civilisation (2000-1700 BC) which is based at Kanesh is at its height between 1950-1800 BC.

The Kültepe tablets
The Kültepe tablets were written by Assyrian traders who were based at Kanesh between 1920-1740 BC, recording business transactions in the Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian

fl c.? - 1985 BC

Kikkia / Kikkiya

King of Ashur. Early Assyrian.

fl c.1985 - 1970 BC

Akiya

Son? King of Ashur. Early Assyrian.

fl c.1970 - 1960 BC

Puzur-Ashur I

Son? King of Ashur. Early Assyrian.

fl c.1960 - 1945 BC

Shallim-ahhe / Shalim-Ahu

Son. King of Ashur. Early Assyrian.

fl c.1945 - 1906 BC

Ilushuma / Ilu-Shuma

Son. King of Ashur. Early Assyrian.

c.1940 - 1906 BC

The early Assyrians, under Ilushuma and from their base in Ashur, begin making raids into central and southern Mesopotamia, attacking Amorite city states which include Isin and Babylon. Illushuma takes the title  'iššiakum (governor) of the god Ashur' who is named for the city and whose cult appears to take hold during this century.

In any understanding of his role he is the city's ruler and king. He is also the first Assyrian king to have the power to take a hand in Sumerian and Akkadian affairs. It is his son who turns this new power into the 'Old Kingdom' period of Assyrian history.

fl c.1906 - 1867 BC

Erishum I

Son. King of Ashur. Early Assyrian empire founder.

c.1906 BC

The early kings of Assyria (or priest-princes, as they are often termed) remain based at Ashur, which is already the dominant of the three main Assyrian city states. Even during the time of the 'Kings Whose Eponyms Are Destroyed' (around 2000-1906 BC), Ashur had become the capital of a ruling elite.

The early Assyrians soon have trading centres in Hatti city states in Anatolia, at least one of which, Kanesh, is conquered by the newly-arriving Hittites. Trade, however, appears to continue between Ashur, the centre of Assyrian trading headquarters, and Anatolia (although there is no documentary evidence to support this, it seems likely that new trading sources in the region would be found).

The city of Apum is also part of the Assyrian trade routes at this time. Assyria's ruler, Erishum I, leaves inscriptions which mention the building of temples to Ashur, Ishtar, and Adad. The Black Sea port of Sinope could owe its origins to an Assyrian foundation, while the Akkadians also trade heavily with Ashur, especially from tin which comes in from the east.

fl c.1867 - 1860 BC

Ikunum

Son. King of Ashur. Early Assyrian.

fl c.1860 - 1850 BC

Sargon I / Sharru-Kin

Son. King of Ashur. Early Assyrian.

fl c.1850 - 1830 BC

Puzur-Ashur II

Son. King of Ashur. Early Assyrian. Overthrown.

c.1835 BC

Kanesh is attacked (Level II), as there are clear archaeological signs that the city is burned to the ground at this time. The attack is attributed by some to Uhna of Zalpa, this then being the point at which he carries off the idol of the city's god, Sius.

The city is abandoned for around thirty years, with the Assyrian karum at Kanesh being hastily abandoned, until about 1800 BC and then a new city is built over the ruins (Level Ib). The new city prospers and trades with Shamshi-Adad's kingdom of 'Upper Mesopotamia'.

fl c.1830 - 1815 BC

Naram-Sin / Suen

Conqueror. King of Eshnunna and Ashur.

c.1830 - 1815 BC

Naram-Sin of Eshnunna considerably extends his territory into northern Babylonia at a time in which the small state which is based at Babylon can do little more than defend its own walls. Eshnunna apparently also temporarily conquers the Assyrians at Ashur, as well as the small state of Ekallatum. It seems that the Assyrians under Erishum II are able to regain control, perhaps at the death of Naram-Sin.

fl c.1815 - 1809 BC

Erishum II

Restored Assyrians. King of Ashur. Defeated.

c.1809 - 1776 BC

The 'Early Dynasty' of Assyria is overthrown by Shamshi-Adad's kingdom of 'Upper Mesopotamia'. Ashur is rebuilt and expanded, although little archaeological data is available for this period.

Around 1800 BC the city of Kanesh is rebuilt anew (Level Ib). The new city prospers and trades with Shamshi-Adad. After his death, his son is unable to hold onto most of the conquests, but Ashur is retained by him, controlled from Ekallatum.

c.1809 - 1776 BC

Shamshi-Adad I / Samsi-Addu

King of Ekallatum & 'Upper Mesopotamia'. Died in battle?

c.1809 - 1741 BC

Ishme-Dagan I

Son. Retained Ekallatum and Ashur.

c.1760s? BC

The Yamutbal people - Amorites on the southern margin of the eastern Anatolian highlands - cede the city of Sadduwatum to Ekallatum, with the traded city being the first station on the trading route from Ashur to Kanesh.

c.1761 - 1741 BC

Ekallatum is conquered by Elam around 1765 BC, so the Assyrians gain temporary new masters who lead them in an attempted conquest of Babylonia. A little under four years later, the Assyrians are crushed by the Babylonians. Assyria becomes part of the Babylonian empire (ruled through Ekallatum until 1741 BC) and vassal kings reign in Assyria for a century or so.

fl c.1740 - 1730 BC

Mut-Ashkur

Son (?) of Ishme-Dagan I of Ekallatum.

c.1740 BC

Drove-Asqur is the last-known king of Ekallatum, while his potential brother, Mut-Ashkur, gains the city of Ashur and the Assyrian leadership. Both are obscure.

However, Drove-Asqur's Ekallatum becomes even more obscure, to the point of disappearing almost entirely from the historical record after his reign. It seems most likely that Mut-Ashkur inherits or captures the city and incorporates it into 'Old Kingdom' Assyrian holdings.

c.1730 - 1727 BC

Rimu-[rest of name unknown]

King of Ashur (and Ekallatum?). Early Assyrian.

c.1726 BC

Asinum

King of Ashur (and Ekallatum?). Early Assyrian.

c.1726 - 1707 BC

Puzur-Sin

Usurper. King of Ashur. Early Assyrian.

c.1706 - ? BC

Ashur-dugal

Usurper. King of Ashur. Early Assyrian.

Ashur-apla-idi

Usurper. King of Ashur. Early Assyrian.

Nasir-Sin

Usurper. King of Ashur. Early Assyrian.

Sin-Namir

Usurper. King of Ashur. Early Assyrian.

Ipqi-Ishtar

Usurper. King of Ashur. Early Assyrian.

? - 1701 BC

Adad-salulu

Usurper. King of Ashur. Lost throne to Adasi dynasty.

c.1701 BC

The final in this series of Assyrian usurpers, Adad-salulu, is replaced by just one more who proves to have better staying power than the rest. The new king of Ashur and Assyrian territories is Adasi, who forms a new Adasi dynasty which remains under Babylonian overlordship.

c.1440 - 1410 BC

Ithiya of Arrapha is mentioned on a seal which has been sent to him by Saushtatar, ruler of Mitanni and son of Parshatatar. It discusses the reorganisation of the governorship of several regional towns - which Ithiya is to enact - while also making it clear that these governors shall not encroach upon one another's territory and none of them shall encroach upon the territory of Arrapha.

From this it seems clear that Ithiya acknowledges Mitanni as his overlord, acts as Mitanni's key representative in the Arrapha region to the east of Mitanni, and also allows an approximate date to be given to his reign. Ashur, which lies on the road from Mitanni to Arrapha is not mentioned at all, showing that the Assyrians are still a very minor, subject group.

Nuzi map
The town of Gasur (shown here in an archaeological sketch) was apparently founded during the Akkadian empire period in the late third millennium BC, before being taken over by Hurrians who renamed it Nuzi.

c.1415 BC

Saushtatar of Mitanni reduces Assyria and humiliates its inhabitants by sending the doors of the famous temple of Ashur back to the Mitanni capital at Washukkanni. Records of Assyrian rulers after this point become confused.

c.1392 BC

The Hittites in Anatolia wrest control of the Assyrians from their former Mitanni overlords. The period of Assyrian vassal kings ends as Assyrian kings gain more freedom under their new, more distant overlords. They lay the grounds for a 'Middle Kingdom' period Assyrian empire which flourishes under Assur-Uballit I.

c.1360 BC

The resurgent Assyrians throw off their overlords, the Hittites, and establish firm control over the heartland of Assyria - the Tigris Valley and the plains to the east, and from Ashur to the Taurus Mountains in the north.

The Assyrian empire flourishes and expands, and the former kings of Ashur become kings of a much larger state with other cities which sometimes become their base of operations.

c.1244 - 1207 BC

The temple of Ishtar in Ashur is rebuilt during the reign of Assyrian King Tukulti-Ninurta I. He begins to take down the old city walls as part of the project but then changes his mind. Instead he builds a new temple alongside the old one.

The new cult room is dedicated to the local manifestation of Ishtar, aššuritu, 'the Assyrian one'. The facade is dominated by projecting square gate towers, while a transverse courtyard leads directly into the vast, oblong cella in which the image of the goddess stands on a pedestal along the narrow side.

Tukulti-Ninurta takes very direct interest in the project, although he does so from his grand and extensive private palace of Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta which he builds three kilometres to the north of Ashur.

c.1115 - 1077 BC

Tiglath-Pileser I erects many temples and monuments in many cities of his thriving Assyrian empire. In Ashur he builds the remarkable huge double temple which he dedicates to the sky god Anu and the weather god Adad. Its walled forecourt leads to twin sanctuaries, each of which abuts a ziggurat.

879 BC

A revolt of the Lullubian chiefs of what is now known as Zamua which has been Assyrian territory for the past two and-a-half centuries is put down. This would seem to be the final hurrah for the Lullubi.

Ashurnasirpal II, though, moves his capital out of Ashur and into Calah to its north. Ashur ceases to be a capital and instead becomes a sacred city, along the lines of third millennium BC Nippur in the south, and a centre of learning, and also the place of burial for Assyrian kings.

616 - 612 BC

Assyria is invaded by the Babylonians in 616 BC and, two years later, Ashur falls to the Medes. The Egyptians also begin a two year battle to free themselves from Assyrian rule.

In 612 BC the empire collapses with the fall of Kalakh and Nineveh to Media and Babylonia, supported by Egypt and groups such as the Scythians, who divide the spoils between them.

King Sin-shar-ishkun dies in his burning palace in Babylon, where Ashurbanipal's great library crashes into the room below, with many of the baked clay tablets surviving to be discovered by later archaeologists.

609 - 539 BC

The remnants of Assyria surrender. The former empire's heartland loses its urban characteristics and the population reside in small settlements on top of massive mounds. The king of Babylonia is acknowledged as the new master.

However, the mid-sixth century King Nabonidus angers the Babylonians by trying to reintroduce Assyrian culture, including placing the moon god Sin above Babylon's Marduk in terms of importance. Perhaps because of that, resistance to Cyrus 'the Great' of Persia, when he enters Babylonia from the east, is limited to just one major battle, near the confluence of the Diyala and Tigris rivers.

On 12/13 October 539 (sources vary), Babylon is occupied by Cyrus, which also gains him the remainder of Elam's territory plus 'Athura' (Ashur, heartland of the former Assyrian empire).

 
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