Near East Kingdoms

Nerebtum (City State) (Sumer)

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The city states of Sumer formed one of the first great civilisations in human history (see feature link). This Near Eastern civilisation emerged a little way ahead of that of Africa's ancient Egypt, and up to a millennium before that of the Indus Valley culture.

It developed out of the end of the Pottery Neolithic across the Fertile Crescent, a period which had seen Neolithic Farmer practices spread far and wide across the Near East and beyond. Southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and the western edge of Iran) was subjected to permanent settlement, initially in the form of pastoralists but soon as farmers too.

By the late fourth millennium BC, Sumer was divided into approximately a dozen independent city states, with local canals and boundary stones marking borders. Many of the smaller cities emerged in two broad waves, in the mid-third millennium BC and at the start of the second millennium BC. One of these was Nerebtum (more accurately Nērebtum, also shown as Neribtum).

The city of Akshak was located in the northern part of Sumer, a short way to the north of Umma. The city of Der lay some way to the direct east, in the Zagros mountain foothills, but a host of smaller cities lay close to it by the start of the second millennium BC, including Ishan-Mizyad, Kutha, Nerebtum, Shadlash, Shaduppum, Tutub, and Uzarlulu.

The modern archaeological site of Tell Ishchali is located in Iraq's Diyala province. It is thought to be an ideal candidate either for Nerebtum or another small city by the name of Kiti. The site was occupied during the Akkadian period from the twenty-fourth century BC and during the Old Babylonian period down to about 1595 BC.

The most notable feature of the Tell Ishchali site is its main temple. This was the temple of Inanna-Kitium (or Inanna of Kiti if the site is not Nerebtum). It is one of the largest monumental buildings ever to have been found in the ancient Near East.

It was rebuilt several times, always following the original plan. It consisted of one large upper temple and two smaller areas which are thought to be shrines. The many tablets to have been found there provide an excellent picture of temple life.

A number of cylinder seals have been found here which date between the 'Early Dynastic' and Larsa periods, and these are assumed to be relic donations to the temple. There was also a smaller temple here for the local city-god version of the god Sin.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City, Gwendolyn Leick (Penguin Books, 2001), from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World, 4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Heywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000), from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt (Routledge, 2000, Vol I & II), from Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East, Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Enrico Ascalone (Dictionaries of Civilizations 1, University of California Press, 2007), from The Archaeology of Mesopotamia, S Lloyd (Revised Ed, London, 1984), from History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323 BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007), and from External Links: Ancient Worlds, and Evolution of Sumerian kingship (Ancient World Magazine), and Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary Project (Published between 2003-2021, part of the Babylonian section of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology), and the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature.)

c.2500 BC

Sumerians continue to control southern Mesopotamia during the 'Early Dynastic' period. The major city states are: Adab, Akkad, Bad-tibira, Borsippa, Eridu, Girsu, Isin, Kish, Lagash, Larsa, Mari, Nippur, Shuruppak, Ur, and Uruk.

This figurine of a woman was dated by archaeologists at about 2500 BC, having been uncovered in the ancient Sumerian city of Lagash

Amongst the minor cities and city states is Nerebtum, at about the time at which the scribes of Abu Salabikh bear Semitic names. Sumer is now a multi-lingual region, with at least two major languages being spoken in the form of Sumerian and Semitic (sometimes labelled proto-Akkadian, with that later being a dominant form of non-Sumerian).

Semitic predominates in northern Sumer and in northern Mesopotamia beyond that - such as at Ashur and Nineveh - as this is the route of entry into Sumer itself for Semitic-speakers.

Its use is most notable in early Akkadians, while Sumerian still dominates in the south and Amorites are already penetrating into north-western Mesopotamia to assume gradual control of small cities such as Terqa.

Some of the earliest cities, such as Sippar, Borsippa, and Kish in the north, and Ur, Uruk, and Eridu in the south, formed the endpoints of what became the complex Sumerian network of cities and canals (click or tap on map to view full sized)

c.1900 - 1830 BC

It is in this period that several very minor regional kings govern individual cities, largely Amorites. Such minor cities are especially numerous in the River Diyala area, close to what remains at this time the small city of Babylon, and close to the region in which Akshak must be located.

Amongst those mentioned in clay tablets are Išmeḫ-bala, Sumu-nabi-yarim, Ḫammi-dušur, Sîn-abušu, and Ikun-pi-Sin of Nerebtum, Shaduppum, and Uzarlulu. Dates are not known, although rough approximations can be ascertained by connecting events which are mentioned for or from other cities and across several tablets.

Akshak itself disappears from history, quite possibly abandoned either during the decline of the twenty-first century BC or the next one in the sixteenth century BC.

The ancient city of Shaduppum - the modern archaeological site of Tell Harmal - now lies in the Baghdad governorate of Iraq, and within the borders of modern Baghdad itself

fl c.1885? BC

King of Nerebtum, Tutub, & Uzarlulu. Succeeded Yadkur-El?

c.1880s? BC

Sumu-Amnānum of Shadlash is known only from two inscriptions, one of which comes from Nerebtum while the other comes from Uzarlulu. Both are dedications to Inanna, 'the lady of Šadlaš' (Shadlash).

When precisely he rules at Shadlash is unknown, but it probably takes place before the reign of Sumu-numhim - who is known from the Nerebtum treaty - so approximately during the time of Sumu-nabi-yarim (or Sumun-abi-yarim) of Uzarlulu or that of Mašparum.

The latter's home city is unknown, as are those of two other contemporary kings - Abdi-Erah (see above) and Šiqlānum (possibly of Eshnunna) - but all of them are dated between about 1900-1880 BC. It is Mašparum who is involved in negotiating with Ḫalun-pi-umu of Marad regarding his intentions to go to war.

fl c.1880s BC

Eshnunnan king? City uncertain and evidence scant.

fl c.1870 - 1830 BC

Within this period, king (or equivalent ruling title).

c.1870? BC

One king who is associated with early Old Babylonian Nerebtum (perhaps succeeding Sîn-abūšu there) is Ikun-pi-Sin who seemingly rules in Uzarlulu around 1870 BC. He is first known from a Tutub year name, one which credits him with the capture of Diniktum. He is also credited with ruling Shaduppum, at least for a certain unspecified period.

Ceramic pot-bellows were employed to supply air to smelting furnaces, significantly contributing to early iron production in the region, with these examples coming from the later levels of ancient Uzarlulu (modern Tell al-Dhiba'i)

c.1865? - 1823 BC

King of Nerebtum & Tutub? Gained Shaduppum.

c.1828 -1823 BC

After about 1862 BC, the city of Eshnunna under Ibiq-Adad II has been expanding its territory to incorporate the Diyala valley as far as its confluence with the Tigris. Previously independent minor cities are now subjugated (seemingly between about 1828-1823 BC).

These include Dur-Rimush, Nerebtum, Shaduppum, and Uzarlulu. It may be Apil-sin of Babylon who takes advantage of this by opportunistically grabbing for himself a few of Shaduppum's territorial holdings.

c.1828- 1818 BC

King of Eshnunna (circa 1862-1818 BC).

fl c.1818 - 1812 BC

Son. Also king of Assyria, probably by conquest.

Naram-Sin considerably extends Eshnunna's territory into northern Sumer at a time in which the small state which is based at Babylon can do little more than defend its own walls. Eshnunna apparently also temporarily conquers the Assyrians at Ashur, as well as the small state of Ekallatum.

The archaeological Qal'at Sherqat mound is part of the ancient city of Assur, located along the Tigris in northern Mesopotamia in a specific geo-ecological zone at the borderline between rain-fed and irrigation agriculture

fl c.1812? - ? BC

Son? May have ruled briefly after Ibal-Pi'el II.

c.1810 - 1806 BC

Rim-Sin of Larsa is aggressively expanding his empire and, following the fall of Isin, Uruk is a prime target. It remains unmolested while Larsa appears to be comparatively weakened, but is seemingly a ringleader in opposition activities until it leaves the loose coalition.

Year 2 of the reign of Rimanum of Uruk is noted for a gathering around the city of the armies of the land of Emut-balum (Larsa), together with those of former rivals, Eshnunna, Isin, and Kazallu (the latter shown as a fragment of the name in the inscription in question).

The best interpretation (as examined by Michalowski and Beckman) suggests that these armies approach Uruk while claiming to be allies. Their approach stirs up an enormous dust cloud. When it settles, Rimanum is able to defeat them. His victory is short-lived as Uruk's walls are destroyed in the following year.

Smaller finds from the site of ancient Mashkan-Shapir have included eleven cylinder seals, several stone pendants, typical burial goods, weaponry artefacts, model chariots with a connection to Nergal, and a clay cone of the little-known Larsa ruler, Zabaya

c.1808 - 1780 BC

Son of Ipiq-Adad II.

c.1781 - 1780 BC

Dadusha of Eshnunna uses diplomacy to ally himself around 1781 BC with the dominant regional power at this time, Shamshi-Adad's kingdom of 'Upper Mesopotamia'. His intention is to conquer the region between the two rivers Zab. He does so, with the victory being commemorated in a victory stele on which he states that he hands over the lands to Shamshi-Adad.

It may only be a year or so before Shamshi-Adad turns on his new ally when he seizes Nerebtum and Shaduppum (and doubtless Dur-Rimush and Uzarlulu too), although these and many more small cities are quickly taken back when the kingdom later fails.

c.1779? - 1776 BC

King of Ekallatum. Founded empire. Probably died in battle.

c.1776 BC

The kingdom of 'Upper Mesopotamia' is attacked simultaneously by Yamkhad and Eshnunna, leading to its disappearance and a general restoration of the old order. Eshnunna establishes itself as the strongest regional state.

Shamshi-Adad's soldiers, who had proven to be so successful in forming a short-lived but powerful regional empire to the east of the Euphrates which is generally known as the kingdom of 'Upper Mesopotamia', are shown in this Assyrian relief

c.1764 - 1762 BC

Descendant of Naramsin? Killed by Babylon?

c.1762 BC

The Babylonians capture the only remaining political power to oppose them when they take Eshnunna, inheriting well-established eastern trade routes and economic stability.

A string of small dependant cities also come with this conquest, including Dur-Rimush, Nerebtum, Shaduppum, and Uzarlulu. Northern Mesopotamia is occupied, ending the independence of small city states such as Andarig, Karana, Qattara, and Razama.