Near East Kingdoms

Mari (City State) (Northern Mesopotamia)

Mesopotamian States & Groups Canaanite States & Groups Islamic Empire Israelites & Israel Ancient Mesopotamia (Intro) Rome Syrian States & Groups

The city states of Sumer formed one of the first great civilisations in human history (see feature link). This Near Eastern civilisation emerged a little way ahead of that of Africa's ancient Egypt, and well ahead of the Indus Valley culture, developing out of the end of the Pottery Neolithic across the Fertile Crescent.

By the late fourth millennium BC, Sumer was divided into approximately a dozen city states which were independent of one another and which used local canals and boundary stones to mark their borders. Many early historical events in the region are found only in the Sumerian king list, which notates the rulers of the city states (and see feature link), but archaeology has also uncovered a wealth of detail.

The city of Mari was located in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and the western edge of Iran, but with Mari just inside the border of modern Syria), at the modern archaeological site of Tell Hariri on the west bank of the Euphrates - the most northerly of all the Sumerian city states. Mari was uncovered by archaeologists in 1933. The site revealed a massive treasure trove of over twenty-five thousand tablets regarding the city's administration and its interactions with other political entities in the region.

Thought to have been inhabited since the fifth millennium BC, from the early third millennium BC the inhabitants of Mari were Semitic-speakers, probably part of the gradual migration which had given rise to the Eblaite and Akkadian polities. The city was located on the middle Euphrates, controlling a long stretch of the Euphrates valley which incorporated villages of pastoralists who used the Syrian steppe for winter pasture.

The early village became a flourishing city state from about 2900 BC until circa 1760 BC, forming a strategic stronghold between Sumer and the city states of ancient Syria and northern Mesopotamia. It was destroyed in the twenty-fourth century BC, and again in the twenty-third, and it only revived when Amorite rulers succeeded Sumerian rulers.

This is the tenth set of entries on the Sumerian list comprising kings 60-65. Six kings achieved dominance over Sumer, ruling for 136 / 184 years (Lists 1 & 2). Here, List 1 is primarily used, backed up by List 2 and List 3 (see the Sumer page for details).

There are also further names which are not on the list who make it highly difficult to establish a clearly-defined timeline for Mari's early kings. Dating uncertain (both king list and non-king list rulers), with the latter being known from relics such as a letter or some discovered objects. Even the running order is uncertain for the non-list kings, although various experts have formulated one which generally seems correct. That approach is used here too, with the fortuitous result that the 'list' kings just about slot in ahead of non-list kings.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City, Gwendolyn Leick (Penguin Books, 2001), from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character, Samuel Noah Kramer ('List 1' of Sumerian rulers, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1963), from Political Change and Cultural Continuity in Eshnunna from the Ur III to the Old Babylonian Period, Clemens Reichel (List of Eshnunna's rulers, providing some names which are not on the Bruce R Gordon list as part of a dissertation proposal for the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at the University of Chicago, 11 June 1996), from First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies, Peter Bellwood (Second Ed, Wiley-Blackwell, 2022), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World, 4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Heywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000), from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt (Routledge, 2000, Vol I & II), from Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East, Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Enrico Ascalone (Dictionaries of Civilizations 1, University of California Press, 2007), from The Archaeology of Mesopotamia, S Lloyd (Revised Ed, London, 1984), from Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History, J N Postgate (Routledge, 1994), from The First Empires, J N Postgate (Oxford 1977), from History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323 BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007), from Ancient History: A Theory About Ancient Times, L C Gerts (List 4 of Sumerian rulers, Chapter 12: The Sumerian king list, 2002), from Mesopotamia, Chris Scarre (Ed, Past Worlds - The Times Atlas of Archaeology, Guild Publishing, London 1989), from The Age of the God-Kings, Kit van Tulleken (Ed, Time Life Books, Amsterdam 1987), from History & Philology, Walther Sallaberger & Ingo Schrakamp (Eds, Arcane III, Brepols, 2015), and from External Links: Ancient Worlds, and The Sumerian Kings List, J A Black, G Cunningham, E Fluckiger-Hawker, E Robson, & G Zólyomi ('List 2' of Sumerian rulers, available via the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford, 1998), and Ancient History, Anthony Michael Love ('List 3' of Sumerian rulers at Sarissa.org), and Images from History (University of Alabama), and Evolution of Sumerian kingship (Ancient World Magazine), and Amorites in the early Old Babylonian Period, R de Boer (Universiteit Leiden, The Netherlands, doctoral thesis which is available to download as a PDF (author's corrected version)), and Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary Project (Published between 2003-2021, part of the Babylonian section of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology), and About the matum in Early Second Millennium Middle Euphrates Region: the Royal Inscriptions of Yahdun-Lım, Diego A Barreyra Fracaroli (Claroscuro, Year 18, No 18, Vol 2, December 2019, pp 1-23, available via Academia.edu), and A Victory over Mari and the Fall of Ebla, Alfonso Archi & Maria Giovanna Biga (Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol 55, American Schools of Oriental Research, 2004, available via University of Chicago Press).)

c.2900 BC

The Jemdet Nasr period (with the city of Jemdet Nasr supplying the type site) now fades in favour of a new, outward-looking 'Early Dynastic' period in Sumer, precisely at the time at which Mari is first built up as a city, one which is both massive and impressive.

A lead tumbler from Ur of the 'Early Dynastic I' period, 2900-2800 BC: using lead for drinking vessels was largely restricted to this period

True Sumerian writing now blossoms as it moves closer to spoken Sumerian, archives explode with mercantile records and administrative acts, and the first kings begin to appear as leading city figures take on more duties and increasing power, ostensibly as deputies of the gods themselves.

c.2600 BC

Ninni-Zaza is a Sumerian-Akkadian goddess who is also known as Inanna-Zaza. A dedicated temple is built in her name in Mari, presumably around this date as she is worshipped here across the next century and more. Even Ikun-Shamagan who has tentatively been placed in the twenty-fifth century BC, is depicted on a alabaster votive statuette praying to Ninni-Zaza.

This figurine of a woman was dated by archaeologists at about 2500 BC, having been uncovered in the ancient Sumerian city of Lagash

c.2600 - 2570 BC

Ruled for 30/90 years.

c.2570 - 2553 BC

Son. Ruled for 17/7 years. Same as Lamgi-Mari?

c.2553 - 2523 BC

Ruled for 30 years. The 'Leatherworker'. Ikun-Shamash?

c.2523 - 2503 BC

Ruled for 20 years. The 'Fuller'.

c.2500 BC

Curiously, but perhaps not coincidentally, it is around this time, 2500 BC or so, that the first version of Mari (known to archaeology as City I) is fully rebuilt. The City II version fully destroys any archaeology for City I when it is being built, and the city remains the only major urban centre in the region. A palace replaces the old metal workshops in the city's centre.

Dates of rule for Mari do not fit in with those which have approximately been established for Adab if the (high) kingship is gained at the start of this dynasty, so more probably the kingship is secured only by the one king in the dynasty, possibly Carrum-iter as the last, with the list including his entire dynasty to reflect his right to rule.

The modern archaeological site of Bismaya (ancient Adab) has been heavily looted, with the pits within the outlines having been specifically documented (by the Qadis project in January 2017)

c.2503 - 2473 BC

Ruled for 30 years. The 'Gudu Priest'.

c.2473 - 2464 BC

Or Sharrum-Ite. Ruled for 9/7 years. Gained the kingship?

c.2473? - 2468 BC

Not on the king list. A replacement dynasty?

c.2473? BC

Ikun-Shamash is suspected as ruling at or slightly earlier than the better-attested reign Ur-Nanshe of 'First Dynasty' city of Lagash. The dating used here places him as a contemporary as that is the best fit for this list construction. It also slots him in almost neatly after the last of the king list rulers, but all dating for Mari's third millennium rulers is subject to ongoing discussion.

Some of the earliest cities, such as Sippar, Borsippa, and Kish in the north, and Ur, Uruk, and Eridu in the south, formed the endpoints of what became the complex Sumerian network of cities and canals (click or tap on map to view full sized)

fl c.2460s? BC

Not on the king list. Probably succeeded Ikun-Shamash.

c.2460s - 2448 BC

Not on the king list.

c.2440s BC

Archaeological work by Hormuzd Rassam in the AD 1880s produces several finds which open up areas of Sippar's history which simply are not known at the time in any written sources. These include a statue of about 2450 BC, dedicated by King Ikun-Shamagan or Iku-shumugan of Mari.

c.2448 - 2441 BC

Not on the king list.

c.2440s? BC

Ansud's name can be translated in a number of ways, including as Anubu, Anusu, Gansud, Hanusum, Ianupu, and Yanup. This little-known king is recorded in a later letter by Enna-Dagan of Mari as having waged war against the city and territory of Ebla.

The surviving seventeen thousand or more clay tablets in the library of Ebla's royal archives are the earliest written documents in Syria, providing a wealth of detailed information about the region and its kingdoms and trade networks

c.2440 - 2425 BC

Eannatum of Lagash annexes virtually all of 'Post-Diluvian' Sumer, including Kish, Nippur, Uruk (briefly), Ur, and Larsa. He reduces his arch-rivals at Umma, twenty-nine kilometres away, to a tributary state with the defeat of Enakalle.

In addition, he extends his realm to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf, apparently using terror as a matter of policy. The stele of the vultures describes the violent treatment which is meted out to his enemies.

Urur of Akshak leads a northern coalition against him but that is destroyed, with Akshak recognising Lagash's supremacy along with Mari, which has been involved in frequent warfare against Lagash and its dominance. Lagash is later eclipsed by Umma under Lugalzaggesi.

c.2441 - 2425 BC

Not on the king list.

c.2420s? BC

It is Sa'amu who is also attested in a much later letter by Enna-Dagan of attacking Ebla, or at least its territory in the middle Euphrates valley where several unimportant towns are conquered.

While southern Mesopotamia flourished during the third millennium BC, it took longer for the same effect to be felt in northern Mesopotamia, with the first larger cities and city states only really emerging towards the end of the millennium (click or tap on map to view full sized)

c.2425 - 2400 BC

Not on the king list but linked in time with Igrish-Halam of Ebla.

c.2400 BC

Iblul-Il is credited with conquering the city state of Ebla. He is one of the best-attested kings of Mari, and his attack on Ebla can be seen as the culmination of some generations of effort to reign in this aggressive neighbour. He also conquers Emar.

c.2400 - ? BC

Not on the king list.

fl c.2390s? BC

Not on the king list. Ruled very briefly?

fl c.2380s? BC

Not on the king list. Ruled 3-5 yrs. Wrote a detailed letter.

c.2380s? BC

Enna-Dagan is a known contemporary of his opposite number in Ebla, Irkab-Damu, although precise dating is not available for either. Enna-Dagan is the writer of a detailed letter which notes several of his royal predecessors and goes a long way to populating this fuller list of Mari's rulers. His reign is brief though, between three to five years.

The visible ruins of the ancient city of Mari include the ziggurat shown here (External Link: Creative Commons Licence Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic)

fl c.2380s BC

Not on the king list.

c.2380? - 2360 BC

Not on the king list. Seemingly the last of his line.

c.2334? BC

Mari is destroyed by fire (the limited City II archaeology shows a burn layer in the palace), although opinion is divided on the culprit. The line of archaeologically-known kings does end about this time, though, based on limited understanding of their order of rule and approximate dates.

It is likely either Sargon of Akkad (who later states that he passes through Mari on his campaign to the west, using it as a base of operations), or Mari's traditional commercial rivals, the people of Ebla. The region declines in importance with the city probably becoming little more than a village.

Sargon 'the Great', the warrior king of apparently humble origins, unified Sumer for (perhaps) the first time in recorded history through a series of campaigns and the defeat of the current holder of Sumer's equivalent of a high kingship

c.2260s? BC

Rebuilt to an extent by Manishtushu during the sometimes turbulent governance of the Akkadians (as archaeology's City III layer), the city of Mari is destroyed again, this time by Ebla. A 'dynasty of generals' - the Shakkanakku - appears to assume control of the reduced remnants.

Maru (Shakkanakku City State) (Northern Mesopotamia)

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After a long struggle between the various little-known kings of the city of Mari and the equally little-known kings of Ebla in which Mari seemingly came out on top, it was Mari which was destroyed not once but twice. The first time in the middle twenty-fourth century BC can be laid at the feet of Sargon of Akkad. The second seems less extensive and certainly is more mysterious. Ebla may have been responsible, firmly turning the tables on its rival.

Very shortly afterwards, perhaps a decade at most, a 'dynasty of generals' came into being. Whether it was a local power or one which was placed there by Sumer is entirely unknown, but it happened perhaps as early as the reign of Manishtushu of the Akkadian empire. Known in Akkadian as Shakkanakku, the generals could be an Akkadian appointment.

They ruled the city as an independent state which remained that way for the next three and-a-half centuries. That independence was probably prolonged by the Gutian invasion of Sumer which resulted in a degree of chaos and confusion to their south, followed by bad Gutian management and then expulsion in favour of the successful 'Third Dynasty' of Ur.

The source for the list of generals is unknown and, until the true expansion of the internet in the AD 2010s, the list itself was hardly ever reproduced elsewhere. Only the later names do not come from the list, but are instead accounted for on seals.

c.2250? BC

The city of Mari, destroyed around 2334 BC and again at least partially destroyed around the 2260s BC, is restored at least to an extent, possibly by Manishtushu of the Akkadian empire (for a second time, but he certainly still reigns). A 'dynasty of generals' - the shakkanakku - appears to assume control of the reduced remnants.

c.2249 - 2190 BC

First of the shakkanakku. Reigned for 60 years.

c.2189 - 2185 BC

Son? Reigned for 5 years.

c.2184 - 2140 BC

Reigned for 45 years.

c.2139 - 2136 BC

Son? Reigned for 4 years.

c.2135 - 2125 BC

Brother? Reigned for 11 years.

c.2120s BC

Archaeologists on 14 March 1936 uncover the statue of Ishtup-Ilum during digging under the direction of André Parroti. The style is somewhat simplistic and coarse, a basic style which is typical of the region at this point but which gradually gives way to greater levels of sophistication.

Cuneiform tablets rarely survive intact, so this Akkadian example which translates a hymn to the goddess Ishtar from Sumerian is especially valuable

c.2124 - 2117 BC

Reigned for 8 years.

c.2116 - 2082 BC

Son. Reigned for 35 years.

c.2094 BC

Shulgi of Ur extends his father's empire to include all of the early Assyrian city states and their at-present non-Assyrian neighbours such as the Lullubi. He also re-conquers Susa (and Urua) from Elam and its Simashki rulers, and may be responsible for finishing off rebuilding work at Nippur. His first wife is Tara-Uram, daughter of Apilkin of Mari whom she terms lugal (or 'king').

c.2081 - 2072 BC

Reigned for 10 years.

c.2071 - 2067 BC

Son of Apilkin. Reigned for 5 years.

c.2067 - 2060? BC

Brother. Reigned for 2-6 years?

c.2060 - 2035? BC

Son of Turâmdagan.

c.2060? BC

At least two statues of Puzur-Ishtar have survived, one of which is found in Babylon where it probably is taken following the city's destruction of Mari around 1762 BC. The inscriptions link him to his father whom he has succeeded, and also to two sons who clearly succeed him.

At the start of the second millennium BC, a series of small city states in Anatolia which had existed for perhaps a millennium now began to emerge from obscurity (click or tap on map to view full sized)

c.2035 - 2028? BC

Son. An Amorite name.

c.2028 - 2020? BC

Brother. An Amorite name.

c.2017 BC

As with much of southern Mesopotamia, the city and state of Ur is rapidly fading in power and influence as harvests fail and the population declines. Ur's massive bureaucracy hinders it from making rapid decisions to ameliorate the situation.

On top of all of this, new waves of immigration into the region by Amorites add an extra layer of confusion and conflict. One of Ibbi-Sin's officials, Ishbi-Erra, now takes the opportunity to move to the subject city of Isin and create his own city state.

c.2016 BC

Isin occupies and plunders the province of Hamazi as Ur's empire collapses. Ishbi-Erra of Isin holds Ur to ransom by withholding shipments of grain, and has long since formed an alliance with Nippur.

About a hundred and fifty kilometres to the south of Baghdad lies a great archaeological mound which is about eighteen metres high and almost 1.5 kilometres across: Nippur, the city of Enlil the 'mooring-rope' of heaven and earth which served as Sumer's primary religious centre

fl c.2010s BC

Relationship and details unknown. Name shown on a seal.

fl c.2000s BC

Son. Details unknown.

c.2004 BC

Long oppressed by the 'Third Dynasty' city of Ur, Kindattu of Elam, together with Simashki and the people of Susa, sacks the city and leads its king into captivity, ending the third dynasty and Sumerian civilisation.

With this threat removed, Elam becomes a powerful kingdom, although it is pushed out of southern Mesopotamia six years later by the Amorite city state of Isin. However, Elam appears to hold on to Kish. Mari apparently suffers an interregnum of unknown duration.

fl c.1990s? BC

Name damaged. Assumed power after an interregnum?

fl c.1990s? BC

Relationship and details unknown. Name shown on a seal.

fl c.1980s? BC

Brother? Son of Itur-. Details unknown.

fl c.1980s? BC

Name incomplete. Relationship and details unknown.

c.1980s? BC

The 'dynasty of generals' comes to an end, for reasons unknown. The collapse of Ur has already resulted in a fresh downward turn in Mari's fortunes, with the city's importance being greatly reduced. It may even be abandoned for a period around this date.

The ruins of the once-vast city of Ur were excavated in 1922 by Sir Leonard Woolley, which is when the 'Royal Tombs' were discovered (External Link: Creative Commons Licence 4.0 International)

With the important route into Mesopotamia now open because Mari is no longer controlling it, Amorite groups around Terqa are able to move in and take over the region. Even though Amorites are clearly already in Mari, now they form an Amorite-Mari state.

Maru (Amorite City State) (Northern Mesopotamia)
Incorporating Amnanu, Rabbu, Sim'alites, Suteans, Uprapu, Yakhruru, Yaminites, & Yarihu

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Having reached city status around 2900 BC, Mari had grown from a village and is mentioned in the Sumerian king list (see feature link) as an important location, at least for a time. It generally attempted to control an important northwards trade route along the Euphrates, but it declined rapidly in the twentieth century BC.

Some time before 2000 BC its population began to swell again even as the city declined, as a result of the arrival in northern Mesopotamia of members of a loose confederation of tribes called Amorites. By 1900 BC the north-western Syrian branch of Amorites - the Sim'alites - was already settled in nearby Terqa, about sixty kilometres to the north of Mari.

Mari was located on the middle Euphrates, controlling a long stretch of the Euphrates valley which incorporated villages of pastoralists who used the Syrian steppe for winter pasture. Their social organisation was tribal. People claimed descent from a common ancestor, whether real or fictional, but affiliations could be somewhat loose. Some tribes were absorbed by others, and some people even changed tribes.

Bolstered by Amorite immigrants, those pastoralists who occupied land around Mari in the late third millennium BC and early second were divided into two major branches: those 'of the left', or the north when facing the rising sun, the Sim'alites, and those 'of the right', or the south, the Yaminites.

The Sim'alites were the tribe of Zimri-Lim, the warlord who seized the throne of Mari in the mid-eighteenth century BC. They preferred to pursue their pastoralism in the Habur river valleys, on the steppe on each side, and in the land of Ida-Maras (in the upper Habur).

The Yaminites are frequently connected in modern works with the Israelite tribe of Benjamin, the Benjaminites (note the similarity in name, with the added prefix 'ben' simply meaning 'son of'). Given the fact that they were already in place when the direct founding ancestors of the Israelites are assumed to have migrated into Syria and Canaan in the eighteenth century BC, it would seem that this unit was only later 'adopted' into the Israelite tribal collective.

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c.1950 BC

With Mari's 'dynasty of generals' - the Shakkanakku - having come to an end for reasons unknown, the collapse of Ur a century prior to this point has already resulted in a fresh downward turn in Mari's fortunes. Now perhaps no more than a large village it has been infiltrated by Amorite groups which now control the region.

fl c.1950? BC

Not of the Shakkanakku? Also controlled Ebla.

fl c.1860s? BC

Amorite ruler? Mari is seemingly occupied by 1860s.

c.1865 BC

Sîn-abūšu must accede the throne of the small Diyala-region city of Shadappum around 1865 BC. The Mari archive states that Amīnum captures Shaduppum in 1862 BC which must be at the beginning of Sîn-abūšu's reign. Apart from that archive mention, there are no indications for this event and Sîn-abūšu's year names continue to be used in Shaduppum (and see feature link for more on this period in the Diyala valley).

The ancient city of Shaduppum - the modern archaeological site of Tell Harmal - now lies in the Baghdad governorate of Iraq, and within the borders of modern Baghdad itself

fl c.1820s? BC

Amorite ruler? Possibly from Terqa.

c.1820 - 1811 BC

Amorite ruler, possibly from Terqa.

The Mari of Yaggid-Lim and the Ekallatum under Ila-Kabkaba begin a feud which lasts until about 1761 BC. The two seemingly had one been allies but perhaps growing power in their respective cities now sees them vying for supremacy over the trade routes.

c.1811 - 1795 BC

Also king of Terqa? Assassinated by his servants.

c.1800? BC

Yahdun-Lim introduces Babylonian language and writing style as a chancellery standard, including the practice of using year names. He starts to rebuild a royal palace which later is famed for its scale and opulence, and his Mari quickly becomes the dominant state on the middle Euphrates.

Babylon began life as a modest town which had been seized from Kazallu, but was quickly fortified by the building of a city wall in the nineteenth century BC

He sends troops north towards the Mediterranean, to join those of Yamkhad in fighting against several previously subject Syrian tribal states, including Harran and Tuttul. The enemy armies are defeated and their towns are attacked. Possibly included in this attack, the Yaminites are also pursued as far west as the Lebanon mountains.

Given the fact that Shamshi-Adad of Ekallatum soon conquers Mari and replaces its ruler, this would seem to be an attempt to fight back against him which ultimately fails.

c.1795 - 1791 BC

Son. Also king of Terqa?

c.1791 BC

Shamshi-Adad sets up an empire which stretches from the Mediterranean to the Zagros mountains, the kingdom of 'Upper Mesopotamia'. He conquers Mari, taking control of Terqa and Urkesh (and likely the nearby Ashnakkum too), and places Yasmah-Adad, one of his sons, on the throne. Yasmah-Adad marries Beltum, daughter of the king of Qatna, as his principal wife.

This tablet from eighteenth century BC Mari contains records of food supplies, with the symbol of a human head with a triangular object in front of it being the verb 'to eat' in later Sumerian

c.1791 - 1776 BC

Upper Mesopotamian 'Governor of Mari'. Overthrown.

c.1776 BC

Upon the death of Shamshi-Adad, his kingdom of 'Upper Mesopotamia' falls apart. In Mari, the Amorite Zimri-Lim of Alakhtum and Terqa destroys Yasmah-Adad's forces. Yasmah-Adad himself is either killed or flees (sources fail to agree).

c.1776 - 1762 BC

A Sim'alite. King of Mari, Alakhtum, & Terqa.

c. 1770s? BC

Son. Predeceased his father, very young.

Zimri-Lim greatly extends Mari's glory when he expands the royal palace to encompass more than three hundred rooms, as well as founding the state archives.

He establishes strong ties with Alep, Babylon, and Hazor, having previously married Princess Shiptu, daughter of Sumu'epuh of Alep, and having been sold the city state of Alakhtum. He later marries the daughter of the king of Qatna, Dam-hurasim.

More complete than most ruins from this period, Qatna's street plan can still be clearly seen amidst some quite substantial wall remnants

He also establishes trade relations with at least thirty-two kings (mentioned in the palace archives), including those of Andarig and Apum, and counts as his vassals Anum-Herwa of Zalwar, Haya-sum of Ilan Shura, and Sharrum-kima-kalima of Razama.

c.1764 - 1762 BC

Hammurabi turns on his old ally, defeating Zimri-Lim in battle and conquering Mari. Two years later, around 1762 BC, Mari is sacked and devastated by Hammurabi and the region is incorporated into the Babylonian empire.

c.1762 - 1730 BC

The area is subsequently occupied by scattered groups of Assyrians and Babylonians, with the former city remaining a village. Power in the middle Euphrates shifts some one hundred kilometres to the north, to Zimri-Lim's home city of Terqa. Mari's immediate fate is unclear, but it remains an occupied city which is seized about 1730 BC by the Kassites as they invade Mesopotamia.

Excavations in Terqa revealed the remnants of an occupation on the west bank of the Euphrates in the early third millennium BC, as one of the first cities in the region and one which was contemporary with its neighbour, the larger and more famous city of Mari

Mari (Kassite City State) (Northern Mesopotamia)

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The Kassites were another non-Semitic, non-Indo-European mountain people just like the Amorites. They invaded Babylonia in the eighteenth century BC under the leadership of their king, Gandash. Although initially defeated, they retired to Mari at a point around 1730 BC or 1715 BC, with those dates probably marking the approximate duration of their campaign into Babylon.

Mari had been conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon around 1762 BC, with the area subsequently being occupied by scattered groups of Assyrians and Babylonians, and with the city reduced to little more than a village. Power in the middle Euphrates shifted to Terqa in the north, while Mari's immediate fate was unclear.

The city remained occupied and, from the end of the 1700s BC, it was controlled by the Kassites. Information on their kings or their people is very sparse, with little certainty about kingly identities other than that they are largely regarded as being Kassites.

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c.1730 - 1705 BC

Kassite leader during the invasion of Babylonia. Ruled 26 years.

c.1730/15 BC

Seemingly coming from nowhere (but more likely entering in force from the northern Mesopotamian region), the invading Kassite army under Gandash is crushed by Iluma-Ilum of the Sealand dynasty. However, Gandash does successfully conquer Mari, and the Kassite kings reside there.

c.1705 - 1690 BC

Son? Ruled for 22 years.

c.1690 - 1680 BC

Also Kashtiliashu of Terqa (state of Hana). Ruled 22 years.

c.1680 BC

Following Kashtiliash's death, the rulers of the state of Hana in the north are different from those in Mari. This probably indicates either that they rule independently in Hana's capital of Terqa or that they are perhaps vassals of Mari.

Although some Kassites later took Babylonian names, the Kassites retained their traditional clan and tribal structure in contrast to the smaller family unit which was preferred by Babylonians

c.1680 - 1665 BC

Relationship unknown.

c.1665 - 1650 BC

Relationship unknown.

c.1650 - 1640 BC

Relationship unknown.

c.1640 - 1630 BC

Relationship unknown.

c.1630 - 1600 BC

Relationship unknown.

c.1600 - 1595 BC

Relationship unknown.

c.1595 BC

Son of Urzigurumash. Conquered Babylon.

c.1595 BC

The economically weakened Babylonian empire is sacked by the Hittites, allowing the Kassites to move south from Mari and to take over control of Babylonia as the city's 'Dynasty III'.

The Hittite 'Old City' (which was probably based on the original construction of the preceding Hatti city) comprised an area of almost one square kilometre, being protected by a massive fortification wall, while on the high ridge of Büyükkale was the residence of the 'Great King', with the later extended city lying on the slope below, to the north-west, and reaching towards the valley below

c.800s - 700s BC

A dynasty of Assyrian governors in and around Mari leaves royal-style inscriptions without acknowledging the weakened Assyrian king. Instead, they cheekily claim descent from Hammurabi of Babylon.

c.331 BC

The Battle of Gaugamela sees Alexander the Great's main Macedonian army take on the massed forces of Persian King Darius III. After a furious encounter with heavy casualties, the Persians start to break. At about the same time the now-permanently-reduced village of Mari disappears from history.