European Kingdoms

Poland

Poland occupies a large area of Eastern Europe bordering the southern Baltic Sea. Its history is a long one, covering several Bronze Age and Iron Age cultures before Germanic settlement from Scandinavia formed the first minor (tribal) states. Of these, the Buri and Lugii occupied areas of southern Poland, the Burgundians and Goths were located centrally, while the Gepids and Rugii were on the northern coast. These states were fairly ephemeral, and once outward migration had depleted most of them, they were replaced by Slavic settlements that eventually coalesced into the early Polish states.

The movements of the Slavic peoples who became the Poles is highly uncertain. That they followed the Baltic peoples into the area seems likely, and that they settled alongside some of them also seems likely. In the Middle Ages, Slavic peoples came to dominate Poland, and as the West Slavic Polish tribes emerged, they formed petty kingdoms that were unified in the tenth century, when Poland emerged into history at the same time as it accepted Christianity.

(Additional information from The History of the Baltic Countries, various authors.)

9000s BC

By this date, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Prussia are settled by proto-Baltic hunter-gather tribes which all share the same cultural traces. They belong to two groups, one being the regionally-dominant Baltic Kunda culture, which is a development of the earlier Swiderian culture located to the south. The other is the Magdalen-Ahrensburg culture located in north-western Germany and Denmark, which probably enriches the Kunda culture.

The Baltic Ice Lake on Poland's northern border was entirely cut off from the Atlantic Ocean until the ice began to recede and rising water levels broke through around 8200 BC

Traditional scholarly belief has these hunter-gatherers migrating from the southern Baltics and further east, but a more recent idea suggests that while this is correct for the Baltics, Finland and northern Scandinavia are also first inhabited via the sweeping grass plains of Doggerland (now under the North Sea). Settlements at Eiguliai and Puvotsiai among others testify to the fact that hunter-gathers are present in Lithuania from as early as the eleventh millennium.

c.8200 BC

The waters of the ice-damned Baltic Ice Lake penetrate the region of the Billingen Mountains to form a link with the Atlantic Ocean. As a result, the Yoldia Sea drops rapidly, by about thirty metres. This retreat is so sudden, and probably has such a profound effect on the early inhabitants of the Baltic area, that it is known as the Billingen Catastrophe.

8000 - 7100 BC

The Preboreal period sees the climate become significantly warmer in the Baltics. Birch and pine forests start to spread, and elk, bears, beavers, and various species of water birds migrate into the region from the south.

7100 - 5800 BC

The Boreal period sees the climate continue to warm and become drier. Pine forests decrease, allowing deciduous trees to gain a firmer foothold and become prevalent. The animal population thrives, with red deer, roe deer, and hares increasing considerably.

5800 - 2800 BC

The Atlantic period is characterised by a climate that is warmer than that of the present day. New species migrate into the Baltic region, including Baltic aurochs and wild boar, which inhabit forests of broad-leaved trees. Water chestnuts grow in the many lakes, and the bountiful life draws hunter-gatherers into the area. The warmness fails towards the end of this period, causing the disappearance of aurochs, wild horses, and water chestnuts.

c.3000 BC

The Comb Ceramic culture reaches Prussia, Latvia, Estonia and Finland as new peoples arrive from the east, almost certainly the Finno-Ugric tribes who form the later core of Finland and Estonia (Estonians, Finns, Livonians, Karelians, Wots, Weps, and Ingrians). The early Neolithic culture seems to form on the basis of the previous Mesolithic cultures, but uses a greater variety of bone, antler and stone implements, and employs boring, drilling, and abrading skills. The Mesolithic Nemunas culture of southern Lithuania is replaced by the Neolithic Nemunas culture.

c.2500 BC

The Corded Ware culture (or Boat Axe culture) arrives in southern Finland, along the coastal regions, as well as in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, western Russia, Poland, northern Germany, Denmark, and southern Sweden. These new, probably early Indo-European, arrivals also have some domesticated animals and bring agriculture with them, although it continues to exist alongside universally-practised hunter-gather activities for some time. Both these people form the proto-Baltic ancestors of the later Latvians and Lithuanians.

Lusatian Culture
13th Century - 7th Century BC

The Late Bronze Age Lusatian culture incorporated elements of the second millennium Trzciniec culture. It covered all of modern Poland with extensions into modern Czechia and Slovakia, north-western Ukraine, and areas of central eastern Germany and eastern Pomerania. The border with what would later be East Prussia marked its farthest eastwards extent. In broad terms, the Lusatian was an eastwards extension of the Urnfield culture, and it shared roughly the same time span of existence, but the Lusatian evolved directly into the subsequent Pomeranian culture. The ethnic composition of the Lusatian people is questionable, but they would have pre-dated the arrival of Germanics into the region.

The historical region from which the culture gets its name is Lusatia, situated roughly in the centre of the earlier cultural region. Today it sits astride the border between Germany and Poland, split down the middle in 1945 by the Soviet conquerors of East Germany. The name derives from a Slavic word to describe swampy land which was coined by the Sorbs, a Slavic minority in eastern Germany.

c.900 BC

For the earlier phase of the Lusatian, the dead are largely cremated and their remains placed in urns for burial. Now begins a phase of inhumation burials, especially notable in Upper Silesia, which may reflect influence from the Urnfield culture. Cremation burials continue in other Lusatian areas.

Cremation urns of the Kashubian Group, part of the Lusatian culture, which was the predominant method of disposing of the dead during the entire culture period

Pomeranian Culture / Pomeralian Face Urn Culture
7th Century - 2nd Century BC

The Iron Age Pomeranian culture evolved out of the previous Lusatian culture around the middle of the seventh century BC. It occupied much the same territory as the Lusatian, but without the extension into eastern Germany and with a reach that eventually went further southwards. It is often linked to the Nordic Bronze Age, which appeared late in Scandinavia in comparison to the continental European Bronze Age. The border with what would later be East Prussia marked its farthest eastwards extent.

As its alternative name suggests, the culture's prominent feature was the creation of burial urns with highly naturalistic and individual faces (the central Germany House Urn culture was similar in some respects). These 'face urns' were often deposited in stone cists (small stone 'coffins' or ossuaries). They also had lids made in the shape of a hat and various scenes were incised onto their bodywork, such as chariot races, hunting, or riders.

The Pomeranians cultivated cereal crops, with rye being added to their harvests for the first time, but imports from the south were generally lower, even though Greece and Italy both enjoyed blossoming cultures in this period. Warfare seems unlikely as an adequate reason, as the region produced less hill forts now than the preceding Lusatians had done. Pomeranian culture was probably influenced by the Germanic groups of southern Scandinavia, at least in part, while a theory based on recent DNA evidence suggests the emergence of a pre-Slavic/Germanic mix which culturally influenced the later Western Slavs.

c.500 BC

The Pomeranian culture begins to spread southwards, entering regions that had formerly been part of the Lusatian culture. It also permeates former Wysoko and Milograd culture regions, and in Masovia and Poland this mixture leads to the development of a group that produces bell-shaped burials, known as the Glockengräbergruppe.

A Pomeranian culture tomb chest constructed at a time of greater metallurgy skills but with weaker ceramic skills when compared to the previous Lusatian culture

c.400 BC

From around this period, various peoples pass through the region over the next eight hundred years, leaving their mark as they go, from Celtic (in southern Poland, the northern limit of their expansion) to Germanic, to Baltic (who remain mostly in the north-eastern corner of Poland). The Oxhöft culture develops in northern Poland while the Przeworsk develops in the southern and central areas.

Oxhöft / Oksywie Culture & Przeworsk Culture
2nd Century BC - 1st Century AD & 2nd Century BC - 5th Century AD

The Oxhöft culture appeared in the first half of the second century BC, succeeding the previous Pomeranian culture in modern northern Poland, mainly around the mouths of the Oder and Vistula. The Polish version of the name is Oksywie after the village in which the first archaeology for this period was discovered. New arrivals in the form of a migration seem to have created the culture, or brought elements of it with them. These people were probably either Scandinavians, or from the western-neighbouring Jastorf culture.

In central and southern Poland, the Przeworsk culture appeared at the same time. It was in part a continuation of the Pomeranian culture of the north, suggesting some southwards migration during the creation of the Oxhöft, but it also bore significant influence from the La Tene and Jastorf cultures. The Przeworsk is linked by some scholars to the arrival and migration of the Vandali, who seem to have migrated into eastern Europe from Scandinavia around the middle of the second century BC.

c.120 BC

Although there is no documentary evidence, it is generally accepted that the Vandali originate in southern Sweden or the Jutland peninsula. Around this time they migrate across the Baltic, arriving on the Pomeranian shores of what later becomes Poland, and soon settle in Silesia. This settlement may well result in the creation of the Przeworsk culture, and this follows them southwards in the third century when they migrate again.

The Vandali probably started in southern Scandinavia, before migrating into northern Poland, and then shifting southwards to form, or perhaps found, the Przeworsk culture

c.8 - 6 BC

Various Germanic tribes can be located within the area of the Przeworsk at this time, including the Lugii and Vandali, along with the Belgic (eastern) Veneti. The Burgundians are also linked to the region prior to their migration. Arguments have existed for some time over whether the Przeworsk is the result of Germanic, proto-Slavic, or Celtic influence. The truth is probably that all three contribute. The Lugii especially are known to cross the boundary between Germanic and Celtic, while little is known of the proto-Slavs except that they first emerge between southern Poland and western Ukraine. Both Oxhöft and Przeworsk cultures are replaced by the Willenberg culture.

Willenberg / Wielbark Culture
1st Century - 3rd Century AD

The Willenberg culture appeared relatively suddenly in the mid-first century AD. It replaced the previous Oxhöft culture along the southern Baltic coast, in the regions of eastern Pomeranian and northern Poland around the lower Vistula. This was a Scandinavian culture which followed Germanic tribes as they migrated southwards from their original homelands in southern Sweden and Norway. The Willenberg also eventually absorbed the Przeworsk culture of central and southern Poland.

Willenberg (modern Wielbark) was a village in the territory of the Teutonic Knights between its initial conquest from the Old Prussians until 1466. Then it became part of the kingdom of Poland up until the First Partition of Poland in 1772. It was gained by Prussia and remained German until 1945. Today it is part of Poland again, but during its late German period, in 1873, a cemetery was uncovered by early archaeologists which contained 3,000 burials. These were attributed to the Goths and the Gepids, and they marked a clear break with, and replacement of, the Oxhöft culture.

c.AD 50 - 150

The generally peaceful arrival of Germanic peoples on the southern Baltic shores in the first and second centuries AD has a great impact on the Baltic population there, resulting in them moving towards eastern Lithuania. In all probability, due to the ethnic affinity of these peoples, peaceful relations are established. The appearance of various new groups of pottery testifies to the further merging of these ethnic groupings. The Scandinavian Willenberg culture which follows the line of the Vistula south from Pomerania replaces the native Oxhöft culture and is the earliest archaeological evidence for the Goths. To the north of the Goths are the Gepids and Scirii, with the Venedi to the east, the Burgundiones and Lugii to the south, and the Suevi and Rugii to the west.

This silver bracelet dates from the Group III burials (of a total of five groups)

c.AD 150 - 200

Perhaps due to pressure from the Baltic tribes, the Goths gradually renew their migration, now moving slowly southwards from the Oder and Vistula, heading on a path that will eventually take them into Ukraine. They take Willenberg culture with them, leaving traces along much of the Vistula in the later stages of the culture's existence.

By now Willenberg culture has also expanded outwards from its heartland along both banks of the lower Vistula to include first the northern Polish and Pomeranian coast to the west, and then turning southwards just short of the Oder to cover the north-western Polish regions. Elements of the Willenberg remains in these regions, along with many Germanic settlements. Together these form the Vidivarii.

Vidivarii / Vidivarian Culture
3rd Century - 5th Century AD

According to the sixth century Byzantine historian, Jordanes, the various Germanic tribes that had formed the preceding Willenberg culture, and which migrated southwards during the second century AD, left behind elements who remained in their adopted homeland. These fragments of tribes included the Gepids, Goths, Rugii, Scirii, and the Belgic (eastern) Veneti, and they essentially banded together. They were named the Vidivarii by Jordanes, who called them a melting pot of tribes who lived around the Vistula. Although they continued the Willenberg culture, differences were apparent, possibly due to outside influences such as the Balts of Lithuania, and Vidivarian culture is sometimes seen as a late continuance of the Willenberg.

400s

Under pressure from migrating Slavic groups, Western Balts begin to take over lands vacated by the Vidivarii in the east, up to the mouth of the Vistula. These Balts prosper in the sixth and seventh centuries, based as they are on an important trade route between the Baltic coast and the Black Sea. However, as the Old Prussians, they suffer badly in the thirteenth century.

The Szkarpawa and Nogat rivers feed into the Vistula Lagoon, part of Vidivarii territory in the third and fourth centuries AD with Western Balts closing on the eastern side

453

From this point there appears to be a sudden appearance of large amounts of Roman coins in the region closest to the coastline, from Greater Poland to Pomerania, which is where the majority of the remaining Eastern Germanics live. The suggestion is that with the breakdown of the Hunnic empire which releases its various subject Germanic tribes, elements of those tribes take the opportunity to return to their southern Baltic homeland of three centuries beforehand. To get there they pass through Silesia and Lusatia, regions that have been almost completely abandoned during the Hunnic invasion phase, as people migrated westwards to get away from the threat. From about 400 onwards, these areas are devoid of fresh layers of archaeology where it relates to human habitation.

c.500

By this time, West Slavic tribes are migrating into southern and central parts of later Poland, which they gradually dominate, slowly decreasing the land available to the Vidivarii. Nevertheless, the Vidivarii groups survive and retain a distinct cultural identity into the sixth century around the lower Vistula, and even later in Pomerania. To their south, focussed on Greater Poland, the Western Polans begin to migrate into the region, forming tribal settlements that grow into small tribal kingdoms.

Western Polans
5th Century AD - AD 962

The Polans were a West Slavic tribe, also known as Polanes, or Polanians. By the eight century AD they were occupying the Warta river basin in the Greater Poland region. They were neighboured to the east by the Masovians (the later region of Masovia), to the south-east by the Vistulans (in Lesser Poland), to the south by the Slezans (Silesians), to the west by the Sorbs, and to the north by the Pomeranians. There were also Balts in the north-east, and these were either later incorporated into the Polish state, or retreated in to Lithuania.

The tribe's name appears to originate with the Slavic word for field, 'polje', which defines a wide flat plain in an area of karst, or soluble bedrock such as limestone. They were part of the Lechtic language group of West Slavs which occupied much of eastern and central Europe, including Poland, eastern Germany, Bohemia and Moravia. They are not to be confused with the Eastern Polans who occupied territory near Kiev and who participated in the creation of the Rus.

Legendarily, the Polans first formed a state in the mid-sixth century, under Lech, brother of the equally legendary Czech and Rus, founders of Bohemia and the Rus respectively. Dates shown for this early duke of Poland and his immediate, unverifiable successors are rough approximations, and their names are given a lilac backing. In general, where events given below are dated they can be treated as historical fact or general estimates worked out from archaeological evidence, while events without dates relate to traditional, legendary storytelling.

(Additional information from A History of Poland from its Foundation, M Ross.)

5th century

Slavs first migrate into Poland towards the later part of the century, filling the void left by the greater part of the departed East Germanic tribes in regions such as Galicia, Lusatia and Silesia. Masuria is also reoccupied, by the West Slavic tribe of the Galindians, after parts of it have been abandoned by the Vidivarii and their preceding Willenberg culture ancestors. Parts of the Galindians establish the regionally significant Olsztyn group, which includes horse burials along with its dead, and a large array of sophisticated bronze, silver and gold items gained through extensive trade in all directions. These Slav populations are still neighboured to the north by surviving Vidivarii populations.

6th century

The West Slavs of Poland gradually subjugate the remaining Germanic populations in the north of the region. It is in the early part of this century that isolated remains from cultures influenced by Rome last appear, mostly the remnants of Germanic tribes that have traded directly or obliquely with the former empire. Germanic populations survive in Pomerania.

The legendary brothers, Lech, Czech and Rus, were the eponymous founders of the Polish, Czech and Russian nations, shown here in Viktor Vasnetsov's 'Warriors', 1898

The Polans occupy the central region of Greater Poland, and during this century a dominant kingship appears to emerge. Its early rulers are legendary, probably created by later generations to confirm the royal family's ancient pedigree (these names are shown with a shaded background). The figures from Popiel onwards would seem to represent real rulers.

Lech / Lechus I

Eponymous mid-sixth century founder of the Poles.

Lech is the legendary mid-sixth century figure to whom the title of duke is first given. From him the country derives the name Lechia, by which it is apparently still known in the tenth century, and which remains in use much later with the Tartars. His people are called Polechia, or the children of Lech. He is credited with founding Gnesa and Posna.

Viscimir

Nephew.

The legendary Viscimir is the probable successor to Lech, although it is also claimed that Lech's son rules after him, or that the most eligible noble is selected (which could easily be Viscimir himself, perhaps after a successional conflict with Lech's son). Viscimir is credited with conquering vast amounts of territory, including the heart of Denmark, although he is not mentioned at all by Danish chroniclers.

Cracus / Gracus I

Wealthy noble selected to rule. Founded Cracow.

Cracus / Gracus II

Eldest son. Elected to rule, but soon murdered by his brother.

8th century

By this century, small Slavic states are beginning to emerge, and these coalesce and expand over the course of the next century. Western Balts also occupy regions of Poland, mostly around the lower Vistula. Two tribes named by Ptolemy in the mid-second century, the Galindai and Soudinoi, survive as the Galindians (in Masuria) and the Sudovians or Yotvingians into the eleventh century, before being absorbed into Poland. These Western Balts represent the later Old Prussians and Yotvingians.

c.700 - ?

Lech II (the Fratricide)

Brother. Deposed when his crime was discovered.

fl c.750

Wenda / Venda / Vanda

Daughter. A 'Virgin Queen'. Committed suicide.

Wenda successfully defends her country from an invading Teutonic prince named Rudiger who is demanding her hand in marriage. Upon his defeat he falls on his sword, and Wenda is soon overcome with gloom and depression at the loss of such a noble figure. She attends a sacrifice to the gods and immediately throws herself from the bridge into the Vistula. The surrounding country is apparently named Vandalia in her honour, although the name is actually used well before this date (a remembrance of Vandali occupation in this region, perhaps). A period of division and internecine strife follows.

? - c.760

Lesko I

Premislaus, a 'private soldier'. Died without an heir.

c.760 - 810

Lesko II

A former peasant, and a good and strong ruler.

c.810 - 815

Lesko III

Son.

fl c.830

Popiel I / Pepelek / Pompilius / Osserich

Son. Founded Cruswitz.

The (legendary) Popielids rule the Polans during the first half of the ninth century. The last of them is the cruel Popiel II, who is ousted from power owing to his poor rule of the Polans and Goplans, including his failure to defend the land from Viking attacks. He is replaced by Piast, whose name suggests that his family had previously been stewards or mayors of the palace. Like their Frankish counterparts, the Carolingian mayors, the Piasts seize control.

fl c.830 - c.842

Popiel (II)

Son. Last of the Popielid rulers of the Polans.

c.842

The earliest of the Piasts known in any source is Chościsko. He is mentioned in the first Polish Chronicle, Cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum (The Deeds of the Princes of Poland) by Gallus Anonymus. It dates to the early twelfth century and is therefore a far from reliable source, although Anonymus may have access to earlier material which has not survived. Chościsko's son is Piast, who is the first of the early Piast rulers of the tribes of the Polans and Goplans. He and the subsequent three princes of early Poland are of dubious certainty. However, it is they, or their historical counterparts, who begin the process of uniting the other West Slavic tribes in the region into a single state. The village of Giecz is the main centre of this early Polish state.

c.842 - 860

Piast Kolodziej (the Wheelwright)

Son of Chościsko. Former mayor of the 'palace'?

860 - 892

Siemowit / Ziemowit

Son.

892 - 921

Lesko / Leszek / Lestko IV

Son.

c.930

Although Leszek's existence is debatable, the tribes within later Poland become known as the Lestkowici during this period. Either his name is a fiction to provide an origin for the Lestkowici, or they confirm his historical existence.

921 - 962

Siemomysl / Zeinomislaus

Son. Died c.960 or 962.

940

Gniezno becomes one of the main fortresses of the early Piasts. It is possible that Siemomysl begins the subjugation of the Masovians. This is completed either by him or by his successor.

962

The successor of Siemomysl is his son, Mjeczislas, or Mieszko, the first documented ruler of the Polans. He is also the figure responsible for uniting several of the West Slavic tribes of the region, including the Masovians and Pomeranians, and he forms a duchy that is quickly elevated to a kingdom of Poland.

Duchy & Kingdom of Poland (Piast)
AD 962 - 1370

The rule of the (legendary) Prince Piast in Great Poland began began a process of unification in the West Slavic region that would become modern Poland. Under the Piasts of the Polans tribe of Slavs, first a duchy and then a kingdom were formed. Mieszko Piast became the first documented ruler of Poland, when he accepted Christianity into the newly created state in 966. At this time, the Polish state encompassed territory similar to that of modern Poland, while Mieszko was also termed 'King of the Wends', the name for West Slavs. His son, Boleslaw I (born circa 966), temporarily extended the Polish realm over Lusatia, Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia.

Poland was declared a kingdom on at least two occasions by its great princes, and the throne was occupied for a time by Bohemian kings on a third occasion, but for the most part, the great princes ruled as dukes of Poland in between periods of confusion and counter-claims for the ducal throne. To clearly differentiate between them, kings are shown in green. From 964, there were two capitals, at Gniezno and Poznan.

(Additional information by Krzysiek Popończyk.)

962 - 992

Mjeczislas / Mieszko I Piast

Son. First documented prince of Poland. Dynasty founder.

966

Having formed a unified Polish state which includes Mazovia and Pomerania, Mieszko I accepts baptism, followed by the building of churches and the establishment of an ecclesiastical hierarchy. He sees baptism as a way of strengthening his hold on power, with the active support he can expect from the bishops, as well as it being a unifying force for the Polish people.

The Baptism of Poland, by Jan Matejko in 1888-1889, portrays a romanticised version of the acceptance of Christianity by King Mieszko on behalf of his people in 966

992 - 1024

Boleslaw I Chobry (the Brave)

Son. Succeeded 25 May. Elevated to king in 1024.

992

The period in which Boleslaw succeeds to the ducal throne is a confused one. Some sources claim that his step-mother and brothers act as his regents for a short time (no longer than 992-995), while others state that in traditional Piast fashion the new ruler sees them as potential rivals and banishes all three of them almost immediately after gaining power. Either way, he is undisputed ruler of Poland in 992 (Greater Poland, Galicia, Mazovia, Kuiavia, and parts of Pomerania, forming something close to the modern Polish territory), as the Holy Roman Emperor, Otto III, requests his military aid later that year.

992

Oda

Step-mother. Regent or rival?

992

Mieszko

Half-brother of Boleslaw. Regent or rival?

992

Lambert

Half-brother of Boleslaw. Regent or rival?

992 - 995

Swietopelk?

In Pomerania.

997

St Adalbert of Prague, sent by the Pope into Prussian lands to convert the pagans, is escorted by soldiers granted to him by Boleslaw. Adalbert is executed for sacrilege, and Boleslaw begins a series of unsuccessful attempts at conquering the Prussians.

1000

On 7 to 15 March the Congress Of Gniezno (the capital of Poland) is held. The German Emperor Otto III establishes an archbishopric in Gniezno with three new bishoprics in Krakow (Cracow) for Little Poland, Wroclaw for Silesia, and Kolobrzeg for Pomerania, plus the reaffirmation of the old bishopric in Poznan.

1002

Upon Otto III's death, Boleslaw takes over Lusatia and the march of Meissen, border territory between Poland and Thuringia.

1003 - 1004

Boleslaw becomes duke of Bohemia (although this conflicts with the Bohemian list of rulers). The title brings with it Moravia and Slovakia.

1018

A peace treaty is signed in Budziszyn with Emperor Heinrich II (Henry II the Saint) - ratifying Poland's control over Lusatia and Meissen (as well as Galicia). In the same year, Germany and Hungary support an expedition against Kiev, and Boleslaw defeats his son-in-law's enemy there, taking over 'Grody Czerwieńskie'.

1024 - 1025

Boleslaw declares the Polish kingdom on 25 December 1024, with the blessing of Pope John XIX, and is crowned on 18 April 1025 in Gniezno. The capital remains divided between Gniezno and Poznan.

1024 - 1025

Boleslaw I the Brave

King. Died 17 June, just two months after his coronation.

1025 - 1031

Mieszko II Lambert

King. Son. Crowned on 25 December.

1031 - 1032

Bezprym

Prince of Poland, probably in Krakow or Silesia, Oct-Spring.

1031 - 1032

Otto

Sub-prince, probably in Krakow or Silesia, Oct-Spring.

1032

Mieszko II Lambert

Restored, spring to Jul only.

1032

Poland is partitioned three ways, with Otto probably gaining Silesia or Krakow, Dytryk (Deitrich) probably in Pomerania, and Mieszko II probably in Great Poland, Mazovia, and Kuiavia. Kiev gains Galicia.

1033 - 1034

Mieszko II Lambert

Restored, until 10/11 May 1034.

1034 - 1038

The rule of Poland becomes confusing and may cease entirely between these dates, leaving no overall authority coordinating the minor duchies. One name is mentioned as a ruler in this period, that of Boleslaw Zapomniany, but his existence is doubtful. He could be a later addition simply to plug the gap and show a continuous monarchy. The mention of Kazimierz may be a sign of his first attempt to restore a unified Polish crown.

1034?

Boleslaw Zapomniany

Existed?

1034

Kazimierz I / Casimir I the Restorer

1038 - 1039?

Boleslaw Zapomniany

Existed?

1037/1038

The Polish 'state' collapses into anarchy. The Pagan Rebellion involves many minor princes, none of whose names or territories are known, except for Mieclaw of Mazovia. In summer 1039, Kazimierz I Karol Odnowiciel, 'the Restorer', gains control of Greater Poland and Kuiavia, gaining with it the title of prince of Poland.

During the period of anarchy, Duke Brestislav I of Bohemia captures, plunders and destroys the cities Gniezno and nearby Poznan in 1038. As a result, Kazimierz I moves the Polish capital to Krakow.

1039 - 1058

Kazimierz I / Casimir I the Restorer

Prince of Poland.

1039 - 1050

Kazimierz I gains control of Krakow and Lesser Poland, and makes Krakow his new capital. In 1040 or 1041 he gains control of Mazovia, and in 1047, Silesia, although perhaps only fully here in 1050.

1058 - 1076

Boleslaw II Smialy / Szczodry (the Bold)

1058 - 1065

Mieszko

Possibly sub-prince in Kuiavia, Sieradz, and Leczyca.

1076 - 1079

A renewed Polish kingdom is declared on 25 December 1076. However, just three years later, it is reduced once more to a duchy upon the expulsion of Boleslaw II. The bewildering array of subsequent claimants to be the senior ruler of Poland during this period makes it very hard to judge just who holds authority in the country.

1076 - 1079

Boleslaw II Smialy / Szczodry (the Bold)

King. Formerly duke of Poland. Restored Gniezno .Expelled.

1079 - 1080

Archbishop Petrus Leczyc

Regent from June onwards.

1079 - 1102

Wladyslaw I Herman

Brother of Boleslaw II. Prince of Poland. Abdicated.

1080

The capital is moved to Plock, which is retained until 1138.

The bishopric in Płock was founded about 1075, but the present cathedral was built after 1129, replacing one that existed by 1102

1081

Vratislav

Duke of Bohemia and pretender to the Polish throne.

1086 - 1089

Mieszko

Wladyslaw's co-ruler. Died 1089.

1093 - 1096

Zbigniew

Illegitimate son of Wladyslaw I. Co-ruler.

1097 - 1102

Zbigniew

Co-ruler for the second time.

1097 - 1102

Boleslaw III Krzywousty

Son of Wladyslaw I & Judith of Bohemia. Co-ruler.

1102 - 1138

Boleslaw III Krzywousty

Senior prince, Greater Poland, Silesia, & Lesser Poland.

1107 - 1108

Zbigniew

Co-ruler for third time, in Greater Poland, Kuiavia & Mazovia.

1122

Boleslaw III gains overall control in areas of Pomerania.

1138

On 28 October, Poland is divided into several principalities: Great Poland, Mazovia, Kujavia, Silesia, and Sandomierz. Little Poland is reserved for the senior Polish prince in Krakow, who is nominal overlord for all the principalities until 1180. Further subdivisions occur throughout the next two centuries.

1138 - 1146

Wladyslaw II Wygnaniec (the Exile)

Senior prince of Poland, and duke of Silesia.

1141 - 1146

Boleslaw IV, duke of Mazovia, rebels against Wladyslaw II between 1141-1143, and again from 1144-1146, securing the position of senior prince for himself.

1146 - 1173

Boleslaw IV Kedzierzawy (the Curly)

Senior prince & duke of Mazovia.

1147

Boleslaw IV attacks the Prussians with the aid of Russian troops, but is unable to conquer them.

1173 - 1177

Mieszko III Stary (the Old)

Duke of Greater Poland.

1173 - 1177

Henryk Kietlicz

Provincial governor for Mieszko III.

1177 - 1191

Kazimierz II Sprawiedliwy (the Just)

1191

Mieszko III Stary (the Old)

Restored.

1191

Boleslaw

A governor for Mieszko.

1191 - 1194

Kazimierz II Sprawiedliwy (the Just)

Restored.

1194 - 1198

Leszek I Bialy (the White)

1194 - 1198

Helena

Regent.

1194 - 1198

Mikolaj

Regent.

1194 - 1198

Pelka

Regent and bishop of Cracow.

1195

Mieszko III Stary opposes Leszek I as senior prince. It takes a further three years before he is restored.

1198 - 1199?

Mieszko III Stary (the Old)

Restored for a second time.

1198/1199

Leszek I Bialy (the White)

Restored in opposition to Mieszko III.

1198/1199

Helena

Restored as regent.

1198/1199

Mikolaj

Restored as regent.

1198/1199

Pelka

Bishop of Cracow. Restored as regent.

1198/99 - 1202

Mieszko III Stary (the Old)

Restored for a third time. Also duke of Greater Poland.

1201

Mieszko III is briefly expelled before being restored (for a fourth time), but again, in 1202, he is replaced by his constant rival.

1202

Leszek I Bialy (the White)

Restored for a second time.

1202 - 1206?

Wladyslaw III Laskonogi (Spindleskanks)

Duke of Greater Poland.

1206 - 1210

Leszek I Bialy (the White)

Restored for a third time.

1209 - 1222

Under Prince Konrad I of Mazovia, attempts to conquer the Prussians are intensified, with large battles and crusades taking place in 1209, 1219, 1220, and 1222.

Prince Konrad of Mazovia challenged continually for control of Poland, finally achieving his purpose in 1241. He was also responsible for inviting the Teutonic Knights into Prussia

1210 - 1211

Mieszko Platonogi

Duke of Silesia. Died 1211.

1211 - 1227

Leszek I Bialy (the White)

Restored for a fourth time. The last senior prince.

1227

The position of senior prince is abandoned. The prince of Krakow now holds nominal control of Poland.

1227 - 1228

Boleslaw V Wstydliwy (the Chaste)

Son of Leszek I.

1227 - 1228

Grzymislawa

Mother and regent.

1228 - 1231

Wladyslaw III Laskonogi (Spindleskanks)

Restored. Now prince of Greater Poland.

1228 - 1229

Henryk I Brodaty (Bearded) of Silesia

Provincial governor for Wladyslaw III.

1228

Prince Konrad I of Mazovia invites the Teutonic Knights to settle in the Lower Vistula on the border with the Prussians, who have been ravaging Mazovia, which straddles the Vistula between the heartland of Poland and Prussia (and occasionally includes the Prussian region of Chelmno). The Order attempts to Christianise the pagan Prussians and form its own military-religious state (known as the Ordenstaat) which it governs for the next three hundred years.

1229

Konrad I Mazowiecki

Prince of Mazovia. in opposition to Wladyslaw III.

1229 - 1230/31

Marek Gryfita

Provincial governor for Wladyslaw III.

1229 - 1241

Prince Konrad of Mazovia opposes Wladyslaw III in 1229 and 1231, and then his successor, Henryk I, in 1233. Only in 1241 is he successful in becoming the senior ruler in Poland.

1230/1231

Teodor (Czader) Gryfita

Provincial governor for Wladyslaw III.

1231

Konrad I Mazowiecki

Prince of Mazovia. in opposition to Wladyslaw III.

1231 - 1238

Henryk I Brodaty (the Bearded) of Silesia

Previously a provincial governor (1228).

1233

Konrad I Mazowiecki

Prince of Mazovia. in opposition to Henryk I.

1238 - 1241

Henryk II Pobozny (the Pious)

Non-dynastic.

1241

Boleslaw (II) Rogatka

Between Apr-Jul only.

1241

Klemens z Ruszczy Gryfita

Provincial governor for Boleslaw (II).

1241

The Mongols of Batu Khan's Golden Horde, aided by Subedei, turn their attention to Poland and Hungary. Both are conquered, with European defeats at Liegnitz and the River Sajo (the Battle of Mohi). However, the death of Ogedei Khan causes the Mongols to withdraw, with Batu Khan intent on securing his conquests in the lands of the Rus.

1241 - 1243

Konrad I Mazowiecki

Prince of Mazovia.

1243 - 1279

Boleslaw V Wstydliwy (the Chaste)

Restored.

1279 - 1288

Leszek II Czarny (the Black)

1282/1285

Konrad (II) Czerski

Pretender.

1288 - 1288/89

Boleslaw (II) Plocki

From Oct 1288 to the end of 1288 or start of 1289.

1288 - 1289

Henryk IV Prawy (Probus)

Non-dynastic.

1289

Wladyslaw restores the fragmented Polish monarchy. As such he is often numbered as the first Wladyslaw by later historians, ignoring the first three, while others include them, numbering this Wladyslaw as the fourth. Both sets of numbering are shown here from this point forwards.

In 1289, Wladyslaw gains power for the first time, albeit briefly. Between April and 13 October 1292 he is a pretender, and is styled 'Heir of Krakow' from January 1293. From 10 March 1296, this changes to 'Duke of the Polish Kingdom'. He is pretender to Krakow until 18 November 1297 and in 1305 gains the throne again, for just two months. Two further periods of rule follow, in 1306-1311 and 1312-1320, until finally, in 1320, he is proclaimed king.

1289

Wladyslaw I (IV) Lokietek (the Short)

Feb-Oct only.

1289 - 1290

Henryk IV Prawy (Probus)

second time

1290 - 1296

The capital is moved briefly back to Plock until 1296, when Poznan takes over.

1291 - 1300

Waclaw II

Wenceslas II of Bohemia (1283-1305).

1292 - 1296

Wladyslaw I (IV) Lokietek (the Short)

Pretender, styled 'Heir of Krakow'.

1293 - 1294

Kazimierz (II) Leczycki

Pretender, styled 'Heir of Krakow'.

1296 - 1297

Wladyslaw I (IV) Lokietek (the Short)

Pretender, styled 'Duke of the Polish Kingdom'.

1300

Waclaw is crowned king of Poland.

1300 - 1305

Waclaw II

King.

1301 - 1309

Henryk I (III) Glogowczyk

Pretender, styled 'Heir of the Polish Kingdom'.

1305

Wladyslaw I (IV) Lokietek

Restored, Jun-Jul only.

1305 - 1306

Waclaw III

Restored. Assassinated.

1306 - 1311

Wladyslaw I (IV) Lokietek

Restored for a second time.

1312

Boleslaw I

Rebelled, Apr-Jun only. Died 1313.

1312 - 1320

Wladyslaw I (IV) Lokietek

Restored for a third time.

1320

On 20 January, all of Poland (except for Silesia, Pomerania, and Mazovia) is reunited into the Polish kingdom with the coronation of Wladyslaw.

1320 - 1333

Wladyslaw I Lokietek

King.

1333 - 1370

Kasimierz / Casimir III Wielki (the Great)

King. The last Piast.

1349

Galicia (and all of Red Ruthenia) is finally reclaimed by Kasimierz III when the kingdom is partitioned by him and Lithuania. The region remains tied to the Polish crown until 1772.

1370

Kasimierz dies leaving only female issue and a grandson - Louis the Great of Hungary. The succession has already been agreed in advance, so Louis is able to claim the throne.

Kingdom of Poland (Anjou-Hungary)
AD 1370 - 1386

On the extinction of the Piast main line, kingship became elective, but de facto the Diet selected kings in hereditary order until 1572. In practise, during the fifteen years of Hungarian rule, power was held by the mother of Louis the Great, Elizabeth of Poland, the dowager queen of Hungary until her death in 1380. Elizabeth was the daughter of Wladyslaw I (IV) of the Piast dynasty, which is how her son was able to establish his claim to the throne.

1370 - 1382

Louis / Ludwik I Wegierski (the Great)

King of Hungary (1342-1382).

1370 - 1377

Elzbieta / Elizabeth of Bosnia

Wife and regent, with a break between 1375-1376.

1377 - 1378

Wladyslaw Opolczyk

Regent, winter 1377-28 Mar 1378.

1378 - 1380

Elzbieta / Elizabeth of Bosnia

Regent, 28 Mar 1378-29 Dec 1380.

1380 - 1382

Zawisza Kurozweki

Regent, 29 Dec 1380-12 Jan 1382. Bishop of Krakow. Died 1382.

1380 - 1382

Dobislaw z Krakow

Acting regent, 29 Dec 1380-11 Sep 1382.

1380 - 1382

Sendziwog Szubin z Kalisz

Acting regent, 29 Dec 1380-11 Sep 1382.

1382 - 1383

Zygmunt Luksemburski (of Luxembourg)

Elector Sigismund of Brandenburg, pretender, 12 Jan- Oct?

1382 - 1384

Dobislaw z Krakow

Regent, 11 Sep 1382-16 Oct 1384.

1382 - 1384

Sendziwog Szubin z Kalisz

Joint regent, 11 Sep 1382-16 Oct 1384.

1383 - 1384

Siemowit (IV)

Pretender, 28 Mar 1383 – 6 Oct 1384.

1383

Jadwiga is the daughter of Louis the Great, but she is also the granddaughter of Wladyslaw I (IV), and thereby a Piast descendant on the female side. When her father dies, she is crowned 'king of Poland'.

Louis I of Hungary was a Piast descendent on his mother's side, and therefore a rightful claimant to the Polish throne

1383 - 1386

Jadwiga of Anjou

Dau of Louis the Great. m Wladyslaw V Jagiello.

1385

The Union of Kreva is agreed. It later becomes a personal union between Lithuania and Poland, when Jogaila has to marry Queen Jadwiga, and accept Catholic Christianity.

Kingdom of Poland (Jagiellan)
AD 1386 - 1569

The Union of Kreva (Krewo) was agreed by Grand Prince Jogaila of Lithuania as the only certain way to halt the crusading attacks on his country by Poland, the Teutonic Knights and Moscow. The union included the offer of the Polish throne in return for the Christianisation of the Lithuanians (and also in part because this would diminish the power of the Teutonic Knights), and in 1386 Jogaila became king of Poland under the name Wladyslaw Jagiello. His marriage to Queen Jadwiga sealed the union between the two countries, beginning four hundred years of Polish-Lithuanian cooperation.

Wladyslaw I (IV) restored the fragmented Piast Polish monarchy and as such he is often numbered as the first Wladyslaw by later historians, ignoring the first three, while others include them, numbering this Wladyslaw as the fourth. Both sets of numbering are shown here for all subsequent Wladyslaws.

1386 - 1434

Wladyslaw II (V) Jagiello / Jogaila

Grand duke of Lithuania. Founder of Jagiellan dynasty.

1386 - 1399

Jadwiga of Anjou

Ruled kingdom jointly with her husband.

1392

Vytautas is successful in gaining Jogaila's concession of power in Lithuania, and rules the country as great prince, while Jogaila concentrates on his Polish domains.

1410

The Teutonic Knights of East Prussia are crushed at the Battle of Tannenberg by Polish and Lithuanian forces under Jogaila's leadership, halting the eastward expansion of the Knights. After this defeat, the Livonian Order begins to weaken and disintegrate.

1429 - 1430

At the assembly of eastern and central European leaders, held in Lutsk, Ukraine, Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund von Luxembourg offers Lithuania a crown. In 1430, protests are made by the Polish Royal Council in their efforts to deny Lithuania crown status. Poland refuses passage to the emperor's envoys and their offering of a crown to Lithuania. The coronation of Vytautas in Vilnius fails and he dies very soon afterwards.

1434 - 1444

Wladyslaw III (VI) / Vlaidslav I Jagiello

Wladyslav VI of Hungary (1440-1444).

1444 - 1446

There is an interregnum in the rule of the country until Grand Duke Casimir of Lithuania gains the throne of Poland as Casimir IV, as well as retaining command of the grand duchy. The union of two thrones is renewed on a personal basis (except between 1492-1501).

1446 - 1492

Kazimierz / Casimir IV

Grand duke of Lithuania (1440-1492).

1454 - 1466

As a Lithuanian, Kazimierz is well aware of the part that the Teutonic Knights have played in continued attacks against his homeland up until the start of the fifteenth century, and perhaps this now partly motivates him in pursuing the Thirteen Year War against them. Ostensibly the reason for the war is the domination of Prussia, which Poland is determined to control. During the war, Poland takes Pomerania and Danzig (modern Gdansk), and the Knights end up as their vassals.

1462

From within the duchy of Mazovia, Belz, Gostynin, and Rawa are annexed by Poland. Further Mazovian territories follow over the course of the next half century or so.

1471

The Lithuanian Jagiello dynasty gains control of Bohemia in the form of Ladislas II. His successor is a member of the same dynasty.

1492 - 1501

John / Jan I Albert

Son.

1501

Fryderyk Jagiellonczyk

Jun-Oct. Archbishop of Gniezno, & interrex (senate chairman).

1501 - 1506

Alexander

Brother. Also grand duke of Lithuania.

1505

The Constitution of 31 May eliminates royal legislative powers.

1507 - 1548

Zygmunt I Stary (the Old) / Sigismund I

Brother. Also grand duke of Lithuania.

1525

The monastic state of the Teutonic Knights is secularised during the Protestant Reformation and replaced with a duchy in East Prussia. The last great master of the Teutonic Knights agrees to resign his position, convert to Lutheran Protestantism, and submit to Polish suzerainty in order to govern his new state, which becomes the first Protestant state in Europe.

1526

Following a devastating defeat at the Battle of Mohács and the death of Louis, the Jagiellos lose Hungary and Bohemia to the Habsburgs. The defeat effectively destroys the dynasty's dream of effecting the 'Jaigello dynasty idea' wherein Lithuania, Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary are drawn together in union. The dream lives on in a more modest form for some years but is never realised.

1548 - 1569

Zygmunt II / Sigismund II Augustus

Son. Also grand duke of Lithuania.

1561

The Livonian Knights are dissolved and the Polish-Lithuanian king gains all of their lands: the southern regions of Estonia and the rest of Old Livonia. North Estonia surrenders voluntarily to the Swedes.

1563

Duke John of Finland has opposed the reign of his half-brother, Eric XIV of Sweden. For this he is imprisoned in this year, only to be subsequently released, probably due to Eric's increasing insanity. John rejoins the opposition and deposes Eric, becoming king himself in 1568. Princess Catherine, daughter of Zygmunt I Stary (the Old), becomes queen consort of Sweden and grand princess of Finland.

1569

The union of Poland and Lithuania, the Lublin Union, already existing in fact if not name for over a century, is formalised. Sigismund becomes king of Poland-Lithuania.

Kingdom of Poland & Lithuania / The Commonwealth
AD 1569 - 1795

The Union of Lublin (or the Accord of Lublin), was a formal joining together of Poland and Lithuania, Ruthenia (a Latinisation of 'Rus', the Lithuanian-controlled Slavic lands to the east, which now form parts of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, with minor extensions into Poland and Slovakia), plus Livonia, Polotsk, and Samogitia. It was ratified on 4 July 1569 by Sigismund II Augustus, establishing the Commonwealth of Poland (or more technically, the United Commonwealth of the Two Nations, Rzeczpospolita, or Rech Pospolitaya). Sigismund became ruler of a united Poland and Lithuania, although the form of the union was more that of a federal state, with a jointly elected leader who would be crowned in Krakow. The state would have a joint senate and unified international politics. Lithuanian landowners received the right to own land in Poland, and vice versa. Both states preserved their own treasuries, state officials, separate armies, and military hierarchy.

1569 - 1572

Sigismund II Augustus

King of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania.

1572

With the death of Sigismund II, the power to elect the king moves from the Diet to the nobility in its entirety. The election of a king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania is carried out jointly, but the management of any interregnum is still a separate matter.

The death of Sigismund II, the last hereditary Lithuanian ruler of Poland, by Jan Matejko

1572 - 1576

The kingdom occupies the principality of Transylvania.

1573 - 1574

Henry of Valois

Non-dynastic. King of France (1574-1589). Left Poland 1574.

1575 - 1586

Stefan / Stephen Bathory

Non-dynastic.

1582 - 1583

An armistice agreement is concluded between Russian czar Ivan the Terrible and the Polish-Lithuanian kingdom proclaiming Livonia a possession of the latter. In 1583, Russia concludes a similar agreement with Sweden, acknowledging its supreme power in North Estonia, ending the Livonian Wars.

1585

The duchy of Courland has officially remained a possession of the Danes until now, when it is sold to Poland-Lithuania.

1587 - 1632

Zygmunt III / Sigismund III Vasa

Son of King John III of Sweden. Also king of Sweden (1592-1604).

1592

Sigismund III inherits the Swedish throne from his late father, but his inflexible politics and passionate Catholicism causes opposition from the Swedish Protestant population, forcing the king to return to Poland. He does not relinquish his claim to the throne, however, which leads to conflict.

1599 - 1604

In the absence of Sigismund III, the Swedish Diet elects his uncle, Karl, duke of Södermanland, to be the new ruler. In 1604 he is crowned, but by then hostilities are already underway between Sweden and Poland-Lithuania. The First Polish-Swedish War (1600-1629) sees Swedish troops assembled in Tallinn in order to attack Livonia, but instead the army suffers significant losses at Cesis and Koknes, in spite of the fact that Poland-Lithuania's main forces are fighting the Ottomans. The Swedes are driven out of Livonia in 1601. Further attacks on Riga in 1604 and Courland in 1605 also fail.

1609 - 1618

Sweden allies itself with Russia, and taking advantage of restless times there, Sigismund launches a pre-emptive war, capturing Moscow and Smolensk. Resistance by the population of Moscow eventually forces the invading army out, but the war rumbles on until 1618, when an armistice is agreed in the village of Deulino.

1621

Poland-Lithuania defeats a major attempt by the Ottoman empire to enter and conquer its territory when former elder of Samogitia, Jonas Karolis Kotkevicius, holds the fortress of Chocim in the path of the advancing 200,000-strong Turkish army. The first snows of winter force the Ottomans to withdraw in defeat.

1629

The First Polish-Swedish War ends with the Treaty of Altmark. The kingdom tacitly accepts the loss of most of its Livonian territories to Sweden. The remainder, the eastern part of Livonia, named Latgallia, remains in Polish hands as Inflantia or the Inflanty Voivodeship (the principality of Livonia).

Poland is also forced to temporarily cede the port cities of Braunsberg (Braniewo in Ermland), Elbing (Elblag), Memel (Klaipeda), and Pillau (Baltiysk). The territory is termed Swedish Prussia, but it is regained in 1635.

1632 - 1648

Wladyslaw IV (VII)

Czar of Russia (1610-1612).

1648 - 1668

John Kazimierz / Jan II Casimir

Lost partial control of the kingdom to Sweden.

1654

Poland is dragged into the Russo-Polish War over the control of Ukraine, in the Polish Commonwealth's far eastern territories. Russian troops seize the most important centres of the Lithuanian grand duchy - Smolensk, Vitebsk, Mogilev, and Minsk - and for the first time in Lithuanian history Vilnius is occupied, followed shortly afterwards by Kaunas and Grodno. The king is exiled between September and November in 1655.

1655 - 1660

Seeing a golden opportunity following the Russian capture of large areas of Lithuania in 1654, Swedish troops enter the duchy of Courland, triggering the Second Polish-Swedish War. Karl X of Sweden declares himself 'Protector of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth'. The occupation period ends when Livonia is officially ceded to Sweden following Poland-Lithuania's signing of the Treaty of Oliva.

1655 - 1660

Karol X Gustaw / Karl X Gustaf

King of Sweden. Opposed John Kazimierz.

1669 - 1673

Michal Korybut / Michael Wisniowiecki

1672 - 1699

Podolia is occupied by the Ottoman empire. During this period, regional Ottoman governors are appointed to administer the territory, although the life expectancy of each holder of the post is relatively short.

1674 - 1696

John / Jan III Sobieski

1677

Latgallia is formally made a province of the commonwealth, and is administered as part of Lithuania while remaining a common possession of both nations.

1683

John III and Charles V of Lorraine lift the siege of Austrian Vienna on 12 September, ending Ottoman expansion in Europe.

1697 - 1704

Poland is joined with Saxony in personal union under Augustus II. It is a union that establishes a precedent that is followed when the grand duchy of Warsaw is established in 1806.

1697 - 1706

Augustus II the Strong

Frederick Augustus I of Saxony.

1702 - 1710

Sweden moves fast to try and knock Saxony and Poland out of the Great Northern War by occupying large areas of Poland. However, victory falls to Russia, Poland and Denmark in 1721, when the Treaty of Nystad ends the Swedish Scandinavian empire.

1704 - 1709

Stanislas Lesczynski

1709 - 1733

The personal union between Saxony and Poland is renewed on 8 August 1709 when Augustus II regains the throne.

1709 - 1733

August II Mocny / Augustus II the Strong

1733

Stanislas Lesczynski

Became duke of Lorraine (1737-1763).

1733 - 1735

The Polish War of Succession erupts in which Stanislas Lesczynski is supported by his son-in-law, Louis XV of France and the Bourbon Philip V of Spain, increasing the Bourbon hold on Europe.

1733 - 1763

Augustus III

Frederick Augustus II of Saxony. Son of Augustus II.

1764 - 1795

Stanislas August Poniatowski

Last king of Poland.

1769 - 1770

Austria occupies the county of Zips (or Spisz in Polish) which is an area which has been settled by Germans. In the following year, Austria annexes the county.

1772

The First Partition of Poland-Lithuania takes place on 5 August, removing large swathes of the commonwealth from Polish control. Royal Prussia together with Warmia and parts of Great Poland (Wielkopolska) are taken by Prussia (as West Prussia). Parts of Little Poland (Malopolska) and Red Ruthenia (Rus Czerwona) are taken by Austria, which forms the kingdom of Galicia & Lodomeria. Polish Livonia (Latgallia) and Lithuania are taken by Russia.

The city of Olsztyn (or Allenstein in German) was seized by Prussia in the 1772 partition

1791

On 3 May, the constitution gives formal sanction to the union with Lithuania, removing the process of electing kings and making the crown hereditary again under the Saxon dynasty.

1793

The Second Partition of Poland-Lithuania is carried out on 23 January. Great Poland and parts of Mazovia go to Prussia while Russia gains Podolia (which is attached to Ukraine), Volhynia, and more of Lithuania.

1794

Between March and September, the Polish fight a rebellion termed the 'war of independence' against Russian hegemony, led by Tadeusz Kosciusko.

1795

The Third Partition of Poland-Lithuania is enacted on 7 January. It removes both states entirely from the map. Russia grabs the rest of Lithuania and almost all of Belarus as well as replacing the duchy of Courland with a governorship. Prussia takes the rest of Mazovia (as New East Prussia) and Warsaw, while Austria gains Krakow and Little Poland, which are added to Galicia & Lodomeria.

1795 - 1806

Neither Poland nor Lithuania exist as identifiable states until 1806, when Napoleon I of France liberates Prussia's Polish territory and forms an Imperial satellite state. It is directly administered as part of the kingdom of Saxony.

Grand Duchy of Warsaw
AD 1806 - 1814

The success of Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte of France in several battles against Austria, Russia, and Prussia greatly encouraged the Poles to hope that he would be their saviour in throwing off occupation and recreating an independent Polish state, or at least an autonomous state that was a vassal of France. What they actually got was a lot less than this, as Napoleon was reluctant to create a fully-fledged state. Instead, he opted for the compromise duchy of Warsaw which was formed from territory formerly occupied by Prussia. The duchy was created in personal union with Saxony, reviving the eighteenth century relationship between the two countries, meaning that the king of Saxony was also grand duke of Warsaw. The captured territory of Galicia & Lodomeria continued to exist as an Austrian possession.

1806 - 1813

Frederick Augustus (III)

King of Saxony (1763-1827).

1809

Western Galicia is ceded from Galicia & Lodomeria to the grand duchy, but previous annexations of Polish territory remain within the Austrian empire.

1813 - 1814

In March 1813, the grand duchy is occupied by Russia while the allies continue to push the French army ever further westwards. The Battle of Leipzig in Saxony in October of the same year frees Germany from French influence, setting up a climax to the war in 1814. The Congress of Poland is formed by the victorious powers at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, and Polish territory is effectively re-partitioned.

French grenadiers of the line defend against an attack by Prussian infantry in the three-day Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, dubbed the 'Battle of the Nations' due to the number of states involved, in this 1914 painting by Richard Knötel

Polish Kingdom / Congress Poland
AD 1815 - 1918

The Polish lands under Russian control between 1815-1916 were collected into the so-called Polish Kingdom. Nominally it was in personal union with Russia, but in reality it occupied a subordinate position, as established by the Congress of Vienna. Due to this it is often referred to by scholars as 'Congress Poland', with the Russian czar as head of state. Warsaw and western Galicia also fell under Russian control.

The 'Free, Independent, and Strictly Neutral City of Krakow with its Territory', often styled the Krakow Republic, fell under the 'protection' of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. It was administered by a government senate and absorbed by Austria in 1846, after which it was termed a grand duchy, with the Austrian emperor himself holding the title.

1815 - 1831

Congress Poland remains a subordinate territory of the Russian czar until the period between 25 January to 26 September 1831. During this period, the First (November) Insurrection is sparked by growing discontent at Russian rule in large areas of Poland.

1830

Józef Grzegorz Chlopicki

Dictator in rebellion against Russia, Dec.

1830

Józef Gabriel Lubowski

Marshal of the Diet of the rebellion, Dec.

1830 - 1831

Józef Grzegorz Chlopicki

Restored dictator in rebellion against Russia, Dec-Jan.

1831

Count Wladyslaw Tomasz Ostrowski

President of the national government of the rebellion, Jan.

1831

Count Wladyslaw Tomasz Ostrowski

Marshal of the Diet of the rebellion, Jan.

1831

Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski

President of the Senate of the rebellion, Jan-Aug.

1831

Jan Stefan Krukowiecki

President of the Senate of the rebellion, Aug-Sep.

1831

Bonawentura Niemojowski

President of the Senate of the rebellion, Sep.

1831

Russian control is restored on 26 September 1831 after a great deal of hard fighting by the Poles. Many Polish soldiers involved in the uprising chose to seek protection in Prussia, where they are disarmed and not particularly welcome. When Russia offers the Polish troops an amnesty, Prussian treatment of the rapidly dwindling number of surviving Poles becomes increasingly harsh. Eventually, the surviving 212 Poles are placed on board a ship at Gdansk and deported. The ship is bound for the USA, but a storm forces it to seek shelter in Portsmouth in Britain. The Poles settle, mainly in London where they form the country's first Polish community (Lennard Goodman, a judge on the BBC tv show, Strictly Come Dancing, is descended from one of their number).

On 22 February 1832, the New Statute (the constitution of the insurrection) abolishes the last remnants of autonomy, and the area becomes known simply as Vistula Country (Privislyansky kray). The czar remains the head of the Polish state, but general control is exercised through the representatives, or viceroys.

1831 - 1856

Ivan Fyodorovich Paskevich

First representative (namestnik) or viceroy. Prince of Warsaw.

1856 - 1861

Mikhail Dmitriyevich Gorchakov

Died 1861.

1861

Nikolay Onufrievich Sukhozanet

Acting viceroy.

1861 - 1862

Count Karl Karlovich Lambert

1861

Nikolay Onufrievich Sukhozanet

Acting viceroy for the second time, for Lambert.

1861 - 1862

Count Aleksey Nikolayevich Lüders

1862 - 1863

Grand Duke Konstatin N Romanov

1863

The period between 22 January 1863 to April 1865 witnesses the 'Second (January) Insurrection', or January Uprising. The uprising takes place across much of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, including Poland, Lithuania, the Baltic Provinces, Latgallia, and Livonia. Following this, Congress Poland is administered as an integral part of Russia.

1863 - 1874

Friedrich Wilhelm Rembert Graf von Berg

Acting viceroy until Oct 1863, then viceroy thereafter.

1874

The position of viceroy is terminated. Governors-general are appointed to control the newly-established Warsaw Military District.

Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph enters his possession, the Grand Duchy of Krakow, in 1880

1874 - 1880

Paul Demetrius Graf von Kotzebue

First governor-general of the Warsaw Military District.

1880 - 1883

Pytor Pavlovich Albedinsky

1883 - 1894

Iosif Vladimirovich Romeyko-Gourko

1894 - 1896

Count Pavel Andreyevich Shuvalov

1897 - 1900

Prince Aleksandr K Bagration-Imeretinsky

1900 - 1905

Mikhail Ivanovich Chertkov

1905

Konstantin Klavdievich Maksimovich

Mar-Aug.

1905 - 1914

Georgy Antonovich Skalon

1914

Yakov Grigoryevich Zhilinskiy

Acting governor-general.

1914 - 1915

Prince Pavel Nikolayevich Yengalychev

In exile from Aug 1915.

1914 - 1915

Russia supports its allies by joining the First World War against Imperial Germany and Austria-Hungary. However, the Russian army advancing into Eastern Europe is routed by the Germans at the Battle of Tannenberg, and loses Russian Poland. German and Austrian governors are appointed to the region (shown here in green and red respectively).

1915 - 1918

Hans Hartwig von Beseler

German governor-general in Warsaw.

1915 - 1916

Erich Freiherr von Diller

Austria-Hungarian governor-general in Lublin.

1916 - 1917

Karl von Kuk

1916 - 1917

Poland is granted autonomy by the occupying powers on 5 November 1916, and the situation is confirmed by the 1917 Brest-Litovsk treaty, which gives much of Eastern Europe to Germany. On 14 January 1917 a Polish kingdom is declared which includes Galicia. Also known as the Regency Kingdom of Poland, it exists only on paper and is superseded by the republic of Poland in 1918.

Galicia was incorporated into the Eastern Front during the First World War

1917 - 1918

Stanislaw Maria Graf Szeptycki

1918

Anton Liposcak

Feb-Nov.

1918

On 6 November 1918 a Polish state is declared. With Germany close to collapse and Austria-Hungary dismantling itself, on 7 November, the Habsburg Poles unite with the former Russian and German-ruled Poles to declare a free and independent Poland.

Modern Poland
AD 1918 - Present Day

The modern republic of Poland is located in Eastern Europe, with the Baltic Sea forming its northern edge (although, since the end of the Cold War, a revisionist element prefers to include it as part of Central Europe). The country is bordered to the north-east by Kaliningrad and Lithuania, to the east by Belarus, to the south-east by Ukraine, to the south by Slovakia and the Czech Republic, and to the west by Germany.

The old Polish state had been partitioned by Austria, Prussia, and Russia in the eighteenth century, and it largely remained that way until the collapse of all three great powers at the end of the First World War. The Polish people united to declare a free and independent Poland on 7 November 1918, incorporating Galicia & Lodomeria and Pomerania, but it was not a stable and secure Poland, however. It had to fight off German irregular troops in the west, and had to fight for its life against Bolshevik Russian troops in the east during the Russo-Polish War, as it tried to push its borders as far east as historical claims would allow. In the end, those borders went too far. Under the terms of the 1921 settlement, White Russia, or Belarus, was partitioned between the Belarussian Soviet Socialist Republic and Poland. Poland itself was burdened with a collection of minorities, mostly Ukrainian, that reduced the Polish majority to just sixty per cent. Furthermore, East Prussia was still in German hands, but Poland now cut it off from direct land access.

1918

The Second Polish Republic (or Second Commonwealth) is formed on 7 November with the declaration of a free and independent state in the face of the collapsing great powers that had previously occupied it between them. Austria, Germany, and Russia are in no state to argue. Polish general and nationalist figure Józef Piłsudski is asked to take control of the new state, which also includes Galicia & Lodomeria (now almost entirely within Ukraine, except for its westernmost edge). The Lemko-Rusyn Republic that is formed in western Galicia tries to link up with Russia, while eastern parts of Galicia are claimed as the West Ukrainian People's Republic, and the competing claims lead to war between Poland, Russia, and Ukraine.

A parade of Polish uhlans at Sejny, a town in Poland today, but initially (after 1915) Lithuanian, which swapped hands several times in the Polish-Lithuanian War of 1919-1920

1918 - 1922

Marshal Józef Piłsudski

Chief of state over ten prime ministers.

1919

The Russo-Polish War is ignited between Poland and Ukraine on one side and Soviet Russia on the other over the creation of the Second Polish Republic and the somewhat uncertain borders on its eastern flank. Józef Piłsudski considers this the best opportunity to restore Poland to its former greatness, and he leads his troops into both Vilnius (part of the fairly brief Polish-Lithuanian War) and Kiev, occupying a welcoming western Ukraine (part of the former Polish Commonwealth).

1920 - 1921

The short-lived Galitzian Socialist Soviet Republic is declared at Ternopol in eastern Galicia, and the Polish-Lithuanian War is briefly fought over the control of Vilnius. With Poland the victor, the short-lived Republic of Central Lithuania is formed (later to be transformed into a Polish voivodeship). Red Army pressure causes the Poles to fall back temporarily, but Piłsudski leads his forces to a notable victory against the Russians at the Battle of Warsaw. As the Poles again advance, a ceasefire is agreed with the Soviets in October 1920 and Vilnius is regained (to be held until 1939). The Peace of Riga is signed on 18 March 1921, which formally divides disputed territory between the Soviets and Poles, with the area that forms modern Belarus effectively split in half. Galicia remains within the new Poland (modern western Ukraine), including the now-suppressed Lemko-Rusyn Republic, and the easternmost parts of Lithuania also remain part of Poland.

1922 - 1926

Elections are held for the post of president, with Gabriel Narutowicz winning. He holds onto the post for all of five days before he is assassinated while attending an art exhibition. His successor is Stanisław Wojciechowski, who remains in the post until he is ousted in 1926.

1926

Marshal Józef Piłsudski is at the head of the May Coup d'Etat (12-14 May 1926) which removes the president from office. While he declines the post of president himself, he effectively remains the power behind the 'throne' for the rest of his life.

1926 - 1935

Marshal Józef Piłsudski

'President-elect' and de facto supreme authority. Died.

1935

Following the death of Józef Piłsudski, his 'Sanacja' movement (Sanation in English), which has put national interests ahead of parliamentary democracy since 14 May 1926, begins to flounder. With no clear path to follow, it breaks up into three rival factions, but the movement in general remains in control of Poland until 1939.

1939 - 1940

The Nazi German invasion of Poland on 1 September is the trigger for the Second World War. With both France and Britain pledged to support Poland, both countries have no option but to declare war on 3 September, although nothing can be done to alleviate Poland's suffering at the hands of the invaders. As part of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviets invade Poland from the east on 17 September, and they annexe western Ukraine and west Byelorussia on 28 September.

On 6 October the last Polish troops surrender, but thousands of Poles, both military and civilian escape the country to form Polish units with the Allied powers, including Polish Navy vessels that serve in the Atlantic and fighter pilots who help defend Britain during the Battle of Britain. The German-occupied zone of Poland, which includes Danzig, Pozen, Silesia, and West Prussia, is partly annexed to Germany. Six days later, the remaining sections of Poland are formed into the 'General Government for the Occupied Polish Territories' which, on 31 July 1940, is re-titled the General Government.

1941

Germany takes over the Soviet-occupied areas on 21 June 1941. These are divided between the General Government and the Reichskommissariat Ostland and Ukraine. On 1 August, Eastern Galicia is added to the General Government.

1943 - 1944

The Warsaw Uprising ignites after German soldiers begin the 'liquidation' of the Jewish ghetto. On 1 August 1944, the Polish resistance launches Operation Tempest, partly in response to this, but also to try and secure control of the country against communist elements. The Allies in the West are unable to provide military aid, and the Soviets deliberately withhold it, as Stalin is keen on securing Warsaw for his expanded communist empire. The uprising fails after some hard fighting and Warsaw is subjected to planned destruction by the Nazis.

1945

The last German troops surrender on 17 January in the face of the relentless Soviet advance. The conclusion of the Second World War sees Poland benefit from the addition of the southern half of the former East Prussia to its territory, including the regions of Pomesania, Culm, and Warmia, once the seats of medieval bishops. The northern half of East Prussia is annexed to Russia as the district of Kaliningrad. Poland's western border is shifted further west, to the Oder-Neisse line, but it loses a vast swathe of eastern territory to Belarus, most of Galicia to Ukraine, and Vilnius to Lithuania. As a result, Poland's total territory falls by twenty per cent. Poland itself remains an occupied satellite state of the Soviet Russian empire, known as the 'People's Republic of Poland'.

The ruins of Warsaw at the end of the Second World War took decades to rebuild, mostly with the Soviet-era concrete which is still visible today

1980 - 1981

The 'Solidarity' trade union is formed during a period of increasingly turbulent labour unrest. Martial law is imposed on Poland the following year, but the influence of Solidarity begins to chip away at the influence and authority of the pro-Soviet government.

1989

The influence of the Communist party in Poland has been steadily eroded over the past decade. Free and fair elections that are held in the summer of 1989 usher in Eastern Europe's first post-Communist government. The new Polish state is called the Third Polish Republic.

1991

Poland, Lithuania and Belarus finally regain full independence with the fall of the Soviet Union. Former East Prussia, or Kaliningrad as it now is, remains directly part of Russia, and is now an isolated enclave on Poland's north-eastern border.

1999

A decade after achieving democratic government, and the subsequent years of turning a planned Soviet economy into a successful free market economy, Poland joins NATO.

2004

Along with a large section of former Soviet-occupied Eastern European states, Poland becomes a member of the European Union. The relaxation of borders across Europe leads initially to a large number of people migrating to the West, and Britain especially gains a large Polish population.